tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-47249907501935040652024-03-27T22:02:09.004+07:00IGCSE Chemistry This is for IGCSE Double Award Chemistry (EDEXCEL), tailored to the 2009 specification. If you spot any mistakes, please let me know, thank you! I hope you find this useful!
This blog is no longer updated as I've finished IGCSEs in 2012. I may sometimes reply to questions if you comment or email me, but not guaranteed. I hope what I had time to post back during IGCSEs helps anyway!! :) Michelle Limhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09339242235492066750noreply@blogger.comBlogger22125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4724990750193504065.post-55774270258867204102014-05-11T16:44:00.001+07:002014-09-18T21:19:54.537+07:00IGCSE / IB Notes for Sale!<span style="color: #4e2800; font-family: Calibri;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.6000003814697px;">I have more IGCSE Chem</span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #4e2800; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.6000003814697px;"> notes than is posted here. To get them all, you can purchase my IGCSE Chem Notes set! I also have handwritten Single Science notes that have been scanned for sale. :)</span><br />
<span style="color: #4e2800; font-family: Calibri;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.6000003814697px;"><br /></span></span><span style="color: #4e2800; font-family: Calibri;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.6000003814697px;">Feel free to contact me: michelle.lim205@gmail.com</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #4e2800; font-family: Calibri;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="color: #4e2800; font-family: Calibri;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;">If you're interested in <b><u>IGCSE Notes</u></b>, please see this link!</span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;"><span style="color: #4e2800; font-family: Calibri;"><a href="http://eatlaughlive.blogspot.com/p/igcse-notes-for-sale.html">http://eatlaughlive.blogspot.com/p/igcse-notes-for-sale.html</a></span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #4e2800; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: white; color: #4e2800; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;">If you're interested in <b><u>IB Notes</u></b>, please see this link! (This is a post with more details!)</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #4e2800; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;"><br /></span><span style="color: #0000ee; font-family: Calibri;"><span style="font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;"><u>http://eatlaughlive.blogspot.com/p/ib-notes-for-sale.html</u></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0000ee; font-family: Calibri;"><span style="font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;"><u><br /></u></span></span>
<span style="color: #4e2800; font-family: Calibri;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;">Or this one - to see previews and scans! </span></span><br />
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/"><span style="color: #4e2800; font-family: Calibri;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;"><span id="goog_1961308349"></span><br /></span></span>
<span style="background-color: white; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Calibri;">http://ibnotesforsale.tumblr.com/<span id="goog_1961308350"></span></span></span></a>Michelle Limhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09339242235492066750noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4724990750193504065.post-20192299915513205652012-08-04T16:53:00.000+07:002012-08-04T21:08:16.365+07:00Atomic Structure<b style="text-align: justify;">1.8 recall that atoms consist of a central nucleus, composed of protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons, orbiting in shells</b><br />
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The centre of an atom is the nucleus, which is composed of protons and neutrons. Their masses are roughly equal and since the mass of the electron is pretty much negligible, most of the mass of an atom is in the nucleus. </div>
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The electrons are found in a series of energy levels which you call shells at IGCSE. Each 'shell' can only hold a certain number of electrons, these shells can be thought of as getting progressively further from the nucleus. Electrons will always go into the lowest possible energy level, provided there is space. The first shell can only hold 2 electrons, then the shells after that can hold a maximum of 8. </div>
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In a diagram, the electrons are shown on circles around the nucleus. Beware that these circles are just imaginary lines to help you understand that the electrons orbit around the nucleus, at IGCSE level you just need to accept that. </div>
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For those moving on to higher levels of Chem, the 'truth' is different, it's actually not really possible to plot the path of an electron. For more information look at the following link, to be honest I don't really understand it myself, it's so confusing. </div>
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<a href="http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/properties/atomorbs.html#top" target="_blank"><span style="color: blue;">http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/properties/atomorbs.html#top</span></a><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Later in the course you will come across dot-and-cross diagrams. Dots or crosses are used to represent electrons, in the above, Carbon has 4 outer shell electrons. They are drawn far apart even though you could draw them close to each other like in the first shell, this is because electrons would repel each other as they have the same negative charge. (Remember like charges repel). So only if you have more than 4 OSE, then do you draw them in pairs. Remember, draw the 4 OSE like in the diagram of carbon above, <i>then</i> pair up any OSE left. The following diagram might help you understand:<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 14px;">This way of drawing electrons is clear and makes it easy to count too. When you learn about ions, dot-and-cross diagrams are useful and they help you see how the electrons are transferred. Like in the above diagram, the Chlorine atom gains one electron (the cross) from the sodium atom to become a <i>chloride</i> ion (Cl<sup>-</sup>), whilst the sodium atom becomes a sodium ion (Na<sup>+</sup>). It is positive because it lost one electron, so it has one more proton than electron now. :) <br />
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<b>1.9 recall the relative mass and relative charge of a proton, neutron and electron</b><br />
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Relative mass<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Proton<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">1/1840 (negligible)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Extra (you don't need to know this): </div>
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Protons and neutrons don't actually have <i>exactly</i> the same mass - neither of them has a mass of exactly 1 on the carbon-12 scale (the scale on which the relative masses of atoms are measured). On the carbon-12 scale, a proton has a mass of 1.0073, and a neutron a mass of 1.0087. </div>
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<b>1.10 understand the terms atomic number, mass number, isotopes and relative atomic mass (A<sub>r</sub></b><b>)</b></div>
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<i><b>Atomic number</b></i> is the number of protons there are in the nucleus, it is sometimes called the proton number, though atomic number should be more accurate because atoms are electrically neutral, the number of protons and electrons are equal. (Protons have a charge of +1 whilst electrons are -1, so they cancel each other out.) So the atomic number tells you the number of protons <i>and</i> the number of electrons. </div>
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<i><b>Mass number</b></i> is the number of protons and neutrons. It is sometimes known as the nucleon number, because protons/neutrons are nucleons. So if a question asks you for the number of neutrons in an atom, <b>mass number - atomic number = no. of neutrons</b>. </div>
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<b><i>Isotopes</i></b>: these are atoms which have the same atomic number but different mass numbers, i.e. same number of protons but different number of neutrons.</div>
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The nu<span style="font-family: inherit;">mber o<span style="background-color: white;">f neutrons in an atom can vary a little. For instance, there are three kinds of carbon atoms <sup>12</sup>C, <sup>13</sup>C and <sup>14</sup>C. Their number of neutrons varies but they have the same number of protons, because each element's atomic number is unique. If it has a different number of protons, it wouldn't be the same element anymore. So these atoms are isotopes of carbon. Bear in mind that the fact that they have varying numbers of neutrons makes no difference whatsoever to the <i>chemical reactions</i> of the carbon. Though their physical properties may vary. </span></span></div>
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<b>Protons<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b>Neutrons<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b>Carbon-12<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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6<o:p></o:p></div>
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12<o:p></o:p></div>
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<b>Carbon-13<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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7<o:p></o:p></div>
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13<o:p></o:p></div>
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<b>Carbon-14<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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6<o:p></o:p></div>
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8<o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
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14</div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<b><br /></b><br />
<i><b>Relative atomic mass</b> </i>(web definition)<i>:<span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span></i><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: white;">the ratio of the average mass per atom of the naturally occurring form of an element to one-twelfth the mass of an atom of carbon-12. Symbol </span><b style="background-color: white;"><i>A</i><sub>r</sub></b><span style="background-color: white;"> Abbreviation </span><b style="background-color: white;">r.a.m</b><span style="background-color: white;">. I find it easier to think of it as:</span></span><br />
<i>The number of times the mass of one atom of an element is heavier than 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom. </i>Anyways, this number is always at the top of an element's symbol, it's always either mass number or RAM at the top, atomic number at the bottom - as shown below:<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img height="89" src="http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/properties/atomdata.GIF" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="200" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">mass number is always on the top, atomic number at the bottom, don't mix them up. at least you know that the mass number is <i>always</i> greater than atomic number</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: center;">
</div>
<b>1.11 calculate the relative atomic mass of an element from the relative abundances of its isotopes</b><br />
You multiply the relative abundance of each isotope by its mass number, add these together, and divide by 100. It's easier to understand through an example, in this case I'll use chlorine, since it's pretty common.<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<img src="http://www.docbrown.info/page04/4_71atom/Cl_35.gif" /> and <img src="http://www.docbrown.info/page04/4_71atom/Cl_37.gif" /></div>
<br />
Chlori<span style="font-family: inherit;">ne consists of 75% Chlorine-35 and 25% Chlorine-37. You can think of the data as 100 atoms, 75 having a mass of 35 and 25 with a mass of 37. So the calculation is:</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;">[(75 x 35) + (25 x 37)] / 100 = 35.5</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;">So the RAM of chlorine, or <b style="background-color: white;">A<sub>r</sub>(Cl) </b><span style="background-color: white;">is 35. </span></span><br />
(There are tiny percentages of other chlorine isotopes but the two shown above are the most common, and so the rest are ignored at IGCSE level.)<br />
<br />
The RAM of an element will be closer to the mass number of the more abundant isotope. For example, the RAM of chlorine is 35.5, which is closer to chlorine-<i>35</i>, because it is the more abundant isotope. Obviously 75% > 25%!.<br />
<b><br /></b><br />
<b>1.12 understand that the Periodic Table is an arrangement of elements in order of atomic number</b><br />
The number of protons in the element's atom increases across the Periodic Table as you've probably noticed in yours.<br />
<b><br /></b><br />
<b>1.13 deduce the electronic configurations of the first twenty elements from their positions <span style="background-color: white;">in the Periodic Table</span></b><br />
To work out the electronic arrangement of an atom:<br />
<br />
<ul>
<li>Look up the atomic number in the Periodic Table - making sure that you choose the right number if two numbers are given. The atomic number will always be the smaller one and tends to be below the symbol.</li>
<li>This tells you the number of protons, and hence the number of electrons.</li>
<li>Arrange the electrons in levels, always filling up an inner level before you go to an outer <span style="font-family: inherit;">one. </span></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">e.g. to find the electronic arrangement in oxygen</span><br />
<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;">the Periodic Table gives you the atomic number of 8.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Therefore there are 8 protons and 8 electrons.</span></li>
<li>The arrangement of the electrons will be 2,6. (First shell only holds 2 electrons, then there's 6 left which occupy the second shell.)</li>
</ul>
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<img height="197" src="http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/properties/simple-pt.GIF" width="400" />
</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<b>1.14 deduce the number of outer electrons in a main group element from its position in the Periodic Table</b><br />
If you look at the patterns in the table:<br />
<ul>
<li>The number of electrons in the outer level is the same as the group number. (Except with helium which has only 2 electrons. The noble gases are also usually called group 0 - not group 8.) This pattern extends throughout the Periodic Table for the main groups (i.e. not including the transition elements). </li>
<li>So if you know that barium is in group 2, it has 2 outer shell electrons (btw, outer shell electrons which I will abbreviate to OSE are also known as valence electrons); iodine is in group 7, so it has 7 OSE, lead is in group 4, so surprise surprise, it has 4 OSE. </li>
<li>Noble gases have full outer shells. Thus they are unreactive. More on them in this post:
<a href="http://askmichellechemistry.blogspot.com/2012/03/periodic-table.html"><span style="color: blue;">http://askmichellechemistry.blogspot.com/2012/03/periodic-table.html</span></a></li>
</ul>
<div>
<br /></div>
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<sub><o:p></o:p></sub></div>Michelle Limhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09339242235492066750noreply@blogger.com42tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4724990750193504065.post-18110868475565281812012-08-03T14:22:00.002+07:002014-03-22T19:39:48.238+07:00More on Electrolysis<span style="color: red; text-align: justify;">Note: This post is mainly for Single Science although it could be good background information for Double Award anyway. :)</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: red;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><i><u>SS</u> 1.53 describe simple experiments for the electrolysis, using inert electrodes, of aqueous solutions of sodium chloride, copper (II) sulfate and dilute sulfuric acid and predict the products</i></b></div>
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<b><br /></b></div>
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So, electrolysis can be used to decompose molten compounds as described in an earlier post on Electrolysis: </div>
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<a href="http://askmichellechemistry.blogspot.com/2012/04/electrolysis.html"><span style="color: blue;">http://askmichellechemistry.blogspot.com/2012/04/electrolysis.html</span></a>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
However, for Single Science, you also need to know about electrolysis of compounds in aqueous solutions. Predicting the reactions and working out the products for aqueous solutions are less straightforward than for molten compounds. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
An aqueous solution of a compound is a mixture of two electrolytes, it's a compound dissolved in water really (so water is the solvent). For example, an aqueous solution of copper (II) sulphate contains two electrolytes: copper (II) sulphate and water. It therefore contains copper (II) sulphate ions (Cu<sup>2+</sup>) and sulphate ions (SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup>), and also small amounts of hydrogen ions (H<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%; vertical-align: super;">+</span>) and hydroxide ions (OH<sup>-</sup>) from the dissociation of water molecules.</div>
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</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
H<sub>2</sub>O (l) <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> H<sup>+</sup>(aq) + OH<sup>-</sup>(aq)<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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These ions compete with the ions from copper (II) sulphate for discharge at the electrodes. </div>
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<br /></div>
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<i>In general, when an aqueous solution of an ionic compound is electrolysed, a metal or hydrogen is produced at the cathode. At the anode, a non-metal, for example oxygen or a halogen, is given off. </i></div>
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<i><br /></i></div>
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Let's see if this is the case in the electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride solution. </div>
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<b><u>Electrolysis of <i>Dilute</i> Sodium Chloride Solution</u></b></div>
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Note: There is a difference in the products between the electrolysis of <i>dilute</i> sodium chloride solution and <i>concentrated </i>sodium chloride solution. I will elaborate later.</div>
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An aqueous solution of sodium chloride contains four different types of ions. They are</div>
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</div>
<ul>
<li>Ions from sodium
chloride – Na<sup>+</sup> (aq) and Cl<sup>-</sup> (aq)</li>
<li>Ions from water – H<sup>+</sup>
(aq) and OH<sup>-</sup> (aq)</li>
</ul>
<br />
<div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
When dilute sodium chloride solution is electrolysed using inert electrodes, the Na<sup>+ </sup>and H<sup>+ </sup>ions are attracted to the cathode. The Cl<sup>- </sup>and OH<sup>- </sup>ions are attracted to the anode. </div>
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<br /></div>
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<i><b>At the cathode: </b></i></div>
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The H<sup>+ </sup>and Na<sup>+</sup> ions are attracted to the platinum cathode. H<sup>+ </sup>ions gains electrons from the cathode to form hydrogen gas. (The hydrogen ions accept electrons more readily than the sodium ions. As a result, H<sup>+ </sup>ions are discharged as hydrogen gas, which bubbles off. I will explain why H<sup>+ </sup>ions are preferentially discharged later.)</div>
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<b>2H<sup>+</sup>(aq) +
2e<sup>-</sup> <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> H<sub>2</sub>(g)</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Na<sup>+</sup> ions remain in solution. </div>
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<br /></div>
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<i><b>At the anode:</b></i><i><br /></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
OH<sup>- </sup>and Cl<sup>- </sup>are attracted to the platinum anode. OH<sup>- </sup>ions give up electrons to the anode to form water and oxygen gas. </div>
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</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b>4OH<sup>-</sup>(aq) <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> 2H<sub>2</sub>O(l) + O<sub>2</sub>(g) + 4e</b><sup><b>-</b><o:p></o:p></sup></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Cl<sup>- </sup>ions remain in solution. </div>
<br />
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<br /></div>
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<b><i>Summary:</i></b> </div>
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The overall reaction is: </div>
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</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
2H<sub>2</sub>O(l) <span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">à </span>2H<sub>2</sub>(g) + O<sub>2</sub>(g)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Since water is being removed (by decomposition into hydrogen and oxygen), the concentration of sodium chloride solution increases gradually. The overall reaction shows that the electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride solution is equivalent to the electrolysis of water.</div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
Another important thing to note is that twice as much hydrogen is produced as oxygen. This is because for every 4 electrons that flows around the circuit, you would get one molecule of oxygen. But four electrons would produce 2 molecules of hydrogen. Hence in a diagram, you would see the volume of hydrogen produced is twice that of oxygen. Refer to the equations above and note the number of electrons involved to help you understand. </div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img src="http://cdn.instructables.com/F4A/54HN/F5R8MQ53/F4A54HNF5R8MQ53.LARGE.gif" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">This diagram is just to illustrate how twice as much hydrogen gas is produced. </td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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</div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><u>Electrolysis of <i>Concentrated</i> Sodium Chloride Solution</u></b>
</div>
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The only difference is that at the anode, Cl<sup>- </sup>ions are more numerous than <span style="text-align: center;">OH</span><sup style="text-align: center;">- </sup>ions. Consequently, Cl<sup style="text-align: center;">- </sup>ions are discharged as chlorine gas, which bubbles off. </div>
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<br /></div>
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</div>
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<b>2Cl<sup>-</sup> (aq) <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> Cl<sub>2</sub>(g) + 2e<sup>-</sup></b><o:p></o:p></div>
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The OH<sup>- </sup>ions remain in solution. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
One volume of hydrogen gas is given off at the cathode and one volume of chlorine gas is produced at the anode. The resulting solution becomes alkaline because there are more OH<sup style="text-align: center;">- </sup>than H<sup>+ </sup>ions left in the solution. </div>
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<br /></div>
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<img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjvKqkVeKMV1b-lGnUzv9eKqVG7gwu9R6JbH68h0VXS5lT4T-Zh0cTqv1aG-0Z6a10rT1IHFfXIXe03vdyuVU6KvC4UaNVkYLk5rRxaNX2OFnmyHZpd-6PoF5E4Xc4JyTgDW1Z-faWKslM/s400/chlor_Diag08.gif" />
</div>
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<br /></div>
<br />
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<i><b>Comparison:</b></i></div>
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Compare the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride, dilute sodium chloride solution and concentrated sodium chloride solution:</div>
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<b><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Molten sodium chloride:</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<ul>
<li>Cathode: Na<sup>+</sup>
ions discharged</li>
<li>Anode: Cl<sup>-</sup>
discharged</li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Dilute NaCl solution: </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<ul>
<li>Cathode: H<sup>+</sup>
ions discharged</li>
<li>Anode: OH<sup>-</sup>
discharged</li>
</ul>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Concentrated NaCl solution:</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<ul>
<li>Cathode: H<sup>+ </sup>discharged</li>
<li>Anode: Cl<sup>-</sup>
discharged</li>
</ul>
<div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
So you can see that Na<sup>+ </sup>and Cl<sup>- </sup>ions are not always discharged even though in all 3 of the above, the electrolytes contained these ions. For example in the electrolysis of dilute NaCl solution, H<sup>+ </sup>are discharged in preference to Na<sup>+ </sup>ions. OH<sup>-</sup> ions are discharged in preference to Cl<sup>- </sup>ions. <span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">Before I talk about the electrolysis
of copper(II) sulfate and dilute sulfuric acid, I will discuss why one
type of cation (or anion) in the electrolyte is more readily discharged than
another type. If you already know this, just scroll right down. :)</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="color: purple;">Note: Most of the following is taken from a G.C.E. 'O' Level textbook, but I find it useful. :) </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 18pt;"><u>Reactivity Series and Selective Discharge
of Ions</u></span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">In
electrolysis, when more than one type of cation or anion is present in a
solution, only one cation and one anion are preferentially discharged.</span></i><i><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"> </span></i><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">This is known as the</span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">selective discharge</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"> </span></b><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">of ions. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p><i>How do you predict which ions are discharged in the electrolysis of a compound in aqueous solution?</i></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
If inert electrodes are used during electrolysis, the ions discharged and hence the products formed depend on three factors:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<ol>
<li>The position of the metal (producing the cation) in the reactivity series. </li>
<li>The relative ease of discharge of an anion. </li>
<li>The concentration of the anion in the electrolyte. </li>
</ol>
<div>
The ease of discharge of cations and anions during electrolysis is shown below.<br />
<br />
<br />
<div align="center">
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><u>Cations<o:p></o:p></u></b></div>
</td>
<td rowspan="11" style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
NB:
Ease of discharge increases as you go down the table</div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f1/Down_Arrow_Icon.png" height="200" width="200" />
</div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><u>Anions<o:p></o:p></u></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Potassium
ion, K<sup>+<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Chloride
ion, Cl<sup>-<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Sodium
ion, Na<sup>+<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Bromide
ion, Br<sup>-<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Calcium
ion, Ca<sup>2+<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Iodide
ion, I<sup>-<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Magnesium
ion, Mg<sup>2+<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Hydroxide
ion, OH<sup>-<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Zinc
ion, Zn<sup>2+<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
</td>
<td rowspan="6" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Note:
sulphate ions (SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup>) and nitrate ions (NO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>)
will not be discharged during electrolysis.</div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Iron
ion, Fe<sup>2+<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Lead
ion, Pb<sup>2+<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Hydrogen
ion, H<sup>+<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Copper
ion, Cu<sup>2+<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Silver
ion, Ag<sup>+<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Selective discharge of cations during electrolysis</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The cations of an element lower in the reactivity series are discharged at the cathode in preference to cations above it in the solution. This is because cations of a less reactive element accept electrons more readily. For example, if a solution containing <span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">Na</span><sup style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">+ </sup>and <span style="text-align: center;">H</span><sup style="text-align: center;">+ </sup>ions is electrolysed, <span style="text-align: center;">H</span><sup style="text-align: center;">+ </sup>ions are discharged in preference to Na<sup style="text-align: center;">+ </sup>ions. The more reactive the metal, the more stable its compound. They have lost a lot of energy and have <i>lost</i> electrons to form stable cations, so cations lower down the reactivity series are more readily discharged.<br />
<br />
<b>Selective discharge of anions during electrolysis</b><br />
Sulphate (<span style="text-align: center;">SO</span><sub style="text-align: center;">4</sub><sup style="text-align: center;">2-</sup>) and nitrate (<span style="text-align: center;">NO</span><sub style="text-align: center;">3</sub><sup style="text-align: center;">-</sup>) ions remain in the solution and are not discharged during electrolysis. If a solution containing <span style="text-align: center;">SO</span><sub style="text-align: center;">4</sub><sup style="text-align: center;">2-</sup>, <span style="text-align: center;">NO</span><sub style="text-align: center;">3</sub><sup style="text-align: center;">- </sup>and hydroxide (O<span style="text-align: center;">H</span><sup style="text-align: center;">-</sup>) ions is electrolysed, the O<span style="text-align: center;">H</span><sup style="text-align: center;">- </sup>ions will be discharged in preference to <span style="text-align: center;">SO</span><sub style="text-align: center;">4</sub><sup style="text-align: center;">2- </sup>and <span style="text-align: center;">NO</span><sub style="text-align: center;">3</sub><sup style="text-align: center;">- </sup>ions. The O<span style="text-align: center;">H</span><sup style="text-align: center;">- </sup>ions give up electrons most readily during electrolysis to form water and oxygen.<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
4OH<sup>-</sup> (aq) <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> 2H<sub>2</sub>O (l) + O<sub>2</sub> (g) + 4e<sup>-</sup> </div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Effect of concentration on selective discharge of anions</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
An increase in the concentration of an anion tends to promote its discharge. For example, in the electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution, two types of ions are attracted to the anode: Cl<sup>- </sup>and OH<sup>- </sup>ions. According to their relative ease of discharge, OH<sup>- </sup>ions should be discharged preferentially. However, in concentrated sodium chloride solution, Cl<sup>- </sup>ions are far more numerous than OH<sup>- </sup>ions and so are discharged at the anode instead. </div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
2Cl<sup>-</sup> (aq) <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> Cl<sub>2</sub> (g) + 2e<sup>-<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><i>What are the general rules for predicting selective discharge?</i></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The following rules can be applied when predicting the products of electrolysis of any aqueous solution (using inert electrodes):</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.9pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
Rule 1<o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 432.9pt;" valign="top" width="577"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
Identify the cations and anions
in the electrolysis. Remember that an aqueous solution also contains H<sup>+</sup>
and OH<sup>-</sup> ions from the dissociation of water molecules. <o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.9pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
Rule 2<o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 432.9pt;" valign="top" width="577"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
At the anode, the product of
electrolysis is always oxygen unless the electrolyte contains a high concentration
of the anions, Cl<sup>-</sup>, Br<sup>-</sup> or I<sup>-</sup> ions. <o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.9pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
Rule 3<o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 432.9pt;" valign="top" width="577"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
At the cathode, reactive metals
such as sodium and potassium are never produced during electrolysis of the
aqueous solution. If the cations come from a metal above hydrogen in the
reactivity series, then hydrogen will be liberated (liberate=release). If the
cations come from a metal below hydrogen, then the metal itself will be
deposited. <o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.9pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
Rule 4<o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 432.9pt;" valign="top" width="577"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
Identify the cations and anions
that remain in the solution after electrolysis. They form the product
remaining in solution. Summarise the reactions. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
For example, in the
electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride solution, Na<sup>+</sup> and Cl<sup>-</sup>
ions remain in solution after H<sup>+</sup> and OH<sup>-</sup> ions have been
discharged. Hence the solution of sodium chloride becomes more concentrated
after electrolysis. <o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<sup><o:p></o:p></sup></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<sup><o:p></o:p></sup></div>
<br />
<b><u>Electrolysis of Copper (II) sulphate solution</u></b><br />
Copper (II) sulphate solution can be electrolysed using inert platinum electrodes. (Sometimes inert carbon electrodes in the form of graphite are used.)<br />
<br />
During electrolysis, the cathode is coated with a layer of reddish-brown solid copper. The blue colour of the solution fades gradually as more copper is deposited. The resulting electrolyte also becomes increasingly acidic.<br />
<br />
An aqueous solution of copper (II) sulphate contains four types of ions:<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<ul>
<li>Ions from copper (II) sulphate: Cu<sup>2+ </sup>and SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup></li>
<li>Ions from water: H<sup>+ </sup>and OH<sup>-</sup></li>
</ul>
<br />
<br />
<b><i>At the anode:</i></b><br />
OH<sup>- </sup>ions and SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2- </sup>ions are attracted to the anode. OH<sup>- </sup>ions give up electrons more readily than SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2- </sup>ions. Consequently, OH<sup>- </sup>ions are preferentially discharged to give oxygen gas.<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b>4OH<sup>-</sup> (aq) <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> 2H<sub>2</sub>O (l) + O<sub>2</sub> (g) + 4e<sup>-<o:p></o:p></sup></b></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
The SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2 </sup>ions remain in solution. </div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<b><i>At the cathode:</i></b></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
H<sup>+ </sup>ions and Cu<sup>2+ </sup>ions are attracted to the cathode. Copper is lower than hydrogen in the reactivity series. Cu<sup>2+ </sup>ions accept electrons more readily than H<sup>+ </sup>ions. As a result, Cu<sup>2+ </sup>ions are preferentially discharged as copper metal (atoms). </div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b>Cu<sup>2+</sup> (aq) +
2e<sup>-</sup> <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> Cu (s)</b><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The H<sup>+ </sup>ions remain in solution. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><i>Summary: </i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
When aqueous copper (II) sulphate is electrolysed using platinum electrodes, copper metal is deposited at the cathode and oxygen gas is given off at the anode. The overall reaction is:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
2CuSO<sub>4</sub> (aq)
+ 2H<sub>2</sub>O (<i>l</i>) <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> 2Cu (s) + O<sub>2</sub> (g) + 2H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>
(aq)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<img height="480" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiI3UAwDimF4xXmMSIkk3SauxP5-GIAi7OlDue8j3Jj1bMZ2xY2EgcgLZ1ub3I57uJQiJxZmploaOCV-LVb6zYEWeKi0H1TcBQgYsROtrlCQmaEKvqZr4-AcDiXgHPtLBOZucnqW_lb744/s640/Electrolysis+of+copper+sulphate.jpg" width="640" /></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<br />
<b><u>Electrolysis of dilute sulfuric acid solution</u></b><br />
Inert carbon or platinum electrodes are used.<br />
<i><b>At the cathode:</b></i><br />
In this case, the only positive ions arrive at the cathode are the hydrogen ions from the acid and the water. (Adding acid to water forces it to split up/hydrolyse.) These are discharged to give hydrogen gas.<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b>2H<sup>+</sup> (aq) +
2e<sup>-</sup> <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> H<sub>2</sub>
(g)</b><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><b>At the anode:</b></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
At the anode, SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2- </sup>ions and OH<sup>- </sup>ions (from the water) accumulate. OH<sup>- </sup>ions are discharged to give O<sub>2 </sub>gas. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b>4OH<sup>-</sup> (aq) <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> 2H<sub>2</sub>O (l) + O<sub>2</sub> (g) + 4e</b><sup><b>-</b><o:p></o:p></sup></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The amount of hydrogen produced is twice that of oxygen. Just like in the electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride solution. <span style="text-align: justify;"> For every 4</span> <span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-align: center;">e</span><sup style="text-align: center;">-</sup><b> </b></span><span style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">that fl</span>ows around the circuit, you would get one molecule of </span><span style="text-align: center;">O<sub>2</sub> </span><span style="text-align: justify;">. But four electrons would produce 2 molecules of </span><span style="text-align: center;">H<sub>2</sub></span><span style="text-align: justify;">. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="text-align: justify;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<img src="http://media.tiscali.co.uk/images/feeds/hutchinson/ency/c00879.jpg" height="320" width="278" />
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<sup><o:p></o:p></sup></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<sup><o:p></o:p></sup></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<sup><o:p></o:p></sup></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<sup><o:p></o:p></sup></div>
</div>
Michelle Limhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09339242235492066750noreply@blogger.com45tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4724990750193504065.post-22796693534830856112012-06-12T20:29:00.003+07:002013-01-02T22:46:51.297+07:00Ionic Compounds<b style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: red; font-family: inherit;">Note: Updated as of 2/1/13, and this blog is no longer being updated because I'm done with IGCSEs and am doing IB, which is seriously hectic. I apologise that this blog is not totally complete but it's all I have and I'm sorry. </span></b><br />
<b style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: red; font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></b>
<b style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">f) Ionic compounds</span></b><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: inherit;">1.27 describe the formation of ions by the gain or loss of electrons</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Ions are atoms or molecules with an electric charge due to the gain or loss of electrons. If electrons are lost, the ion has a positive charge. Metals tend to do this, so they form cations (positive ions), so normally elements from group 1-3 will form cations. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">If electrons are gained, the ion has a negative charge. Non-metals tend to do this, and they form anions (<b>A-N</b>egative<b>-ION</b> - <b>ANION</b>). So elements from group 5-7 will form anions. Group 0/8 are the noble gases and are inert + unreactive, so they do not form ions.<b></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: inherit;">1.28 understand oxidation as the loss of electrons and reduction as the gain of electrons</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><b>OILRIG - </b> <b>O</b>xidation <b>I</b>s <b>L</b>ost, <b>R</b>eduction <b>I</b>s <b>G</b>ain<b></b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: inherit;">1.29 recall the charges of common ions in this specification</span></b></div>
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<tr><td colspan="3" style="border-bottom: windowtext 1pt solid; border-left: windowtext 1pt solid; border-right: windowtext 1pt solid; border-top: windowtext 1pt solid; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 228.2pt;" valign="top" width="304"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.8pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Positive ions/Cations</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Negative ions/Anions</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Charge</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Name of ion</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Formula</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Charge</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Name of ion</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Formula</span></div>
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<tr style="height: 122.3pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;"><td style="border-bottom: windowtext 1pt solid; border-left: windowtext 1pt solid; border-right: windowtext 1pt solid; border-top: windowtext 1pt solid; height: 122.3pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext 1.0pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 74.9pt;" valign="top" width="100"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.8pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">1+</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: windowtext 1pt solid; border-left: medium none; border-right: windowtext 1pt solid; border-top: medium none; height: 122.3pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 77.65pt;" valign="top" width="104"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.8pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Ammonium</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Copper (I)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Hydrogen</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Lithium</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Potassium</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Silver</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Sodium</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Cu<sup>+</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">H<sup>+</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Li<sup>+</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">K<sup>+</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Ag<sup>+</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Na<sup>+</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">1-</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Bromide</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Chloride</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Hydroxide</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Fluoride</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Iodide</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Nitrate</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Hydrogencarbonate</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Br<sup>-</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Cl<sup>-</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">OH<sup>-</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">F<sup>-</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">I<sup>-</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">NO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup></span></div>
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<tr style="height: 157.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;"><td style="border-bottom: windowtext 1pt solid; border-left: windowtext 1pt solid; border-right: windowtext 1pt solid; border-top: windowtext 1pt solid; height: 157.4pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext 1.0pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 74.9pt;" valign="top" width="100"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.8pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">2+</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Barium</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Calcium</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Copper (II)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Iron (II)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Lead (II)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Magnesium</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Nickel (II)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Strontium</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Zinc</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Ba<sup>2+</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Ca<sup>2+</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Cu<sup>2+</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Fe<sup>2+</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Pb<sup>2+</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Mg<sup>2+</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Ni<sup>2+</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Sr<sup>2+</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Zn<sup>2+</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">2-</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Carbonate</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Sulphate</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Sulphite</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Sulphide</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Oxide</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">CO<sub>3</sub><sup>2-</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">SO<sub>3</sub><sup>2-</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">S<sup>2-</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">O<sup>2-</sup></span></div>
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<tr style="height: 40.8pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;"><td style="border-bottom: windowtext 1pt solid; border-left: windowtext 1pt solid; border-right: windowtext 1pt solid; border-top: windowtext 1pt solid; height: 40.8pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext 1.0pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 74.9pt;" valign="top" width="100"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.8pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">3+</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: windowtext 1pt solid; border-left: medium none; border-right: windowtext 1pt solid; border-top: medium none; height: 40.8pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 77.65pt;" valign="top" width="104"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.8pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Aluminium</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Iron (III)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Al<sup>3+</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Fe<sup>3+</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">3-</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Nitride</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Phosphate</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">N<sup>3-</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3-</sup></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: inherit;">1.30 deduce the charge of an ion from the electronic configuration of the atom from which the ion is formed</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">So if the electronic configuration is 2.8.1, you can see that the atom has one outer shell electron only. And so it only needs to lost that to have a full outer shell. So its ion would have a positive 1 (1+) charge, as the electronic configuration would be 2.8. Basically, if there are less outer shell electrons to lose to have a full outer shell, then the charge will be positive. (Here, it is easier to lose than gain, because the ion would have to gain SEVEN electrons to have a full outer shell!)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Another example, if the electronic configuration is 2.8.7, then the atom only needs to gain 1 outer shell electron to have a full outer shell. So the ion formed would have the electronic configuration of 2.8.8, and so the charge would be negative 1 (you’re gaining one electron, which has a negative charge (1-) ). Thus if it is easier to gain electrons, (it is here, rather than losing 7 outer shell electrons), then the charge will be negative.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><img src="http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/bonding/naclionic.GIF" /> </span></div>
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Here, the Sodium (Na) has <i>lost</i> one electron. It doesn't have equal numbers of protons and electrons anymore; it has one less electron than protons (or you can think of it as one more proton than electrons), so it has a 1+ charge. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">The chlorine, on the other hand, has <i>gained</i> one electron. So it has one more electron than proton, thus it has a negative 1 charge (1-). The formula for sodium chlor<i>ide</i> is NaCl. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><img src="http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/bonding/mgoionic.GIF" /> </span></div>
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The magnesium atom loses 2 electrons to an oxygen atom, and they both have full outer shells now. It is common that ions form noble gas structures like this to become more stable and unreactive like the group 0/8 elements. </span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The magnesium oxide is held together by very strong attractions between the ions. The ionic bonding is stronger here than in sodium chloride as this time you have 2+ ions attracting 2- ions. The greater the charge, the greater the attraction.</span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The formula for magnesium oxide is MgO.</span></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-family: inherit;">1.31 explain, using dot and cross diagrams, the formation of ionic compounds by electron transfer, limited to combinations of elements from Groups 1, 2, 3 and 5, 6, 7</span></b></div>
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<img src="http://www.yenka.com/activities/Properties_of_Ionic_Materials/attachments/Properties%20of%20Ionic%20Materials%20-%20Dot%20cross%20NaCl.gif" /><br />
<img src="http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/images/diag_sodium_chloride.gif" /><br />
<br />
This is a common example, it doesn't matter which element has dots/crosses for their electrons, the important thing is to make it clear that the electrons are transferred from one atom to another to make 2 ions. The one losing an electron here is sodium, so it becomes a positive ion called a cation, and the chlorine atom gains an electron and becomes a chlor<b style="font-style: italic;">ide</b> ion (an anion).<br />
<br />
<img alt="Diagram of bonding in magnesium oxide. A magnesium ion (2,8)2+ gives two electrons to an oxide ion (2,8)2-. Both ions have full highest energy levels" src="http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/images/diag_mag_oxide.gif" /><br />
Magnesium oxide: MgO<br />
Even though only one magnesium ion and one oxide ion is shown, the actual equation is:<br />
2Mg + O<sub>2 </sub><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">à </span>2MgO<br />
(remember that oxygen is diatomic)<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<img alt="Diagram of bonding in calcium chloride. A calcium ion (2,8,8)2+ gives one electron to a chloride ion (2,8,8)- and another electron to another chloride ion (2,8,8)-. All three ions have full highest energy levels" src="http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/images/diag_calcium_chloride.gif" /><br />
Calcium chloride: <span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">CaCl</span><sub style="line-height: 115%;">2</sub></span><br />
<span style="line-height: 19.09090805053711px;">However, here you have to show 2 chloride ions because calcium loses 2 electrons, and 2 chlorine atoms gain an electron each to form 2 chloride ions.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>1.32 understand ionic bonding as a strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
^self-explanatory</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>1.33 understand that ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points because of strong electrostatic forces between oppositely charged ions</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The strong electrostatic forces between oppositely charged ions are ionic bonds as mentioned in the previous spec point. And these require a lot of energy to break, hence high melting/boiling points. </div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
</div>
Michelle Limhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09339242235492066750noreply@blogger.com20Hong Kong22.396428 114.10949722.161534500000002 113.79364000000001 22.6313215 114.425354tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4724990750193504065.post-56085502100945790542012-06-06T19:45:00.001+07:002012-06-06T20:14:09.635+07:00Hydrogen and water<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: red;"><b>Note: I'm adding Labels at the end of posts so that when you click on them, it will show ALL the posts in that section related to it. This will make this blog easier to use, as I don't post in a specific order, rather I answer or post according to what people needed. Hope this helps and please feedback. :) </b></span><br />
<br />
Section 2: Chemistry of the Elements; part e) Hydrogen and water</div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>2.26 describe the reactions of dilute hydrochloric and dilute sulfuric acids with magnesium, aluminium, zinc and iron</b></div>
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<b><br /></b></div>
<br />
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<o:p>Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react with acids to form a salt (e.g. magnesium sulfate or zinc chloride) and hydrogen. The metals are 'displacing' hydrogen. The higher the metal in the series, the more violent the reaction. (This is why if you put copper in acids, you won't see a reaction, as it is below hydrogen in the reactivity series. However, it does react with concentrated nitric acid but we're not concerned with that now.)</o:p></div>
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<o:p><br /></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
Metal + dilute
hydrochloric acid <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> metal chloride
+ hydrogen<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
Metal + dilute
sulfuric acid <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> metal sulfate
+ hydrogen<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><u>Magnesium</u></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Magnesium reacts vigorously with cold dilute acids, and the mixture becomes very warm as heat is produced. There is rapid fizzing (effervescence) and a colourless gas is evolved, which pops with a lighted splint (the test for hydrogen). The magnesium gradually disappears and a colourless solution of magnesium sulfate or chloride is formed. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
--The reactions between magnesium and hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid are similar because it is reacting with the hydrogen ions. All acids in solutions have hydrogen ions. Although hydrochloric acid has chloride ions, and sulfuric acid has sulfate ions, these are spectator ions. They do not participate in the reaction and are unchanged by it. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
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You can rewrite the
equations as ionic equations. In the case of hydrochloric acid:<o:p></o:p></div>
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Mg (s) + 2H<sup>+ </sup>(aq)
+ 2Cl<sup>-</sup> (aq) <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> Mg<sup>2+</sup>
(aq) + 2Cl<sup>-</sup> (aq) + H<sub>2</sub> (g)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
You can see that the
chloride ions weren’t changed by the reaction. It is a spectator ion, so we
leave it out of the ionic equation. Leaving out the spectator ions produces the
ionic equation:</div>
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<b>Mg(s) + 2H<sup>+</sup>
(aq) <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> Mg<sup>2+</sup> (aq) + H<sub>2</sub> (g)</b><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Repeating this with
sulfuric acid:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
Mg (s) + 2H<sup>+ </sup>(aq)
+ SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup> (aq) <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> Mg<sup>2+ </sup>(aq) + SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup> (aq) + H<sub>2</sub>
(g)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Again, leaving out the
spectator ion which is the sulfate ion in this case.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b>Mg(s) + 2H<sup>+</sup>
(aq) <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> Mg<sup>2+</sup> (aq) + H<sub>2</sub> (g)</b><o:p></o:p></div>
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<b><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
So the reactions look
the same because they <i>are </i>the same.
All acids in solution contain hydrogen ions. That means that magnesium will
react with any simple dilute acid in the same way. <o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><u>Aluminium</u></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Aluminium is slow to start reacting, but after warming it reacts very vigorously. There is a very thin, but very strong, layer of aluminium oxide on the surface of the aluminium, which stops the acid from getting to it. On heating, the acid removes this layer, and the aluminium can show its true reactivity. With dilute hydrochloric acid:</div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">2Al
(s) + 6HCl (aq) </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; line-height: 115%;">à</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;"> 2AlCl<sub>3 </sub>(aq) + 3H<sub>2 </sub>(g)</span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;"><b><u>Zinc and Iron</u></b></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">Zinc and iron react slowly in the cold, but more rapidly on heating. Their reactions are less vigorous than that of aluminium, and iron less than zinc of course, as it is below zinc in the reactivity series. Zinc forms zinc chloride or sulfate and hydrogen. The iron forms iron (II) sulfate or iron (II) chloride and hydrogen. For example:</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
Zn (s) + H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>
(aq) <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> ZnSO<sub>4</sub> (aq) + H<sub>2</sub> (g)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
Fe (s) + 2HCl (aq) <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> FeCl<sub>2</sub> (aq) + H<sub>2</sub> (g)<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>2.27 describe the combustion of hydrogen</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Hydrogen reacts violently with oxygen in the presence of a flame to give water. It could explode if there was a lot of hydrogen. But a lighted splint placed at the mouth of a test tube of hydrogen will just give a squeaky pop as the hydrogen reacts with oxygen in the air. The lighted splint and a squeaky pop heard is the test for hydrogen. </div>
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<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>2.28 describe the use of anhydrous copper (II) sulfate in the chemical test for water</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Anhydrous copper (II) sulfate is white, anhydrous being without water, it is dry (an--without, hydrous--related to water). Whereas hydrated copper (II) sulfate crystals are bright blue, the water is what gives it the colour, and is part of the structure. To show that the water is part of the structure, there is a '.' [dot] in the formula: </div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 20px;">CuSO</span><sub style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 1em;">4</sub><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 20px;">·5H</span><sub style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 1em;">2</sub><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 20px;">O </span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 20px;">^You see the dot in the middle? That shows the water is part of the copper sulfate crystal structure. </span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 20px;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 20px;">So that is a chemical test for water, just add it to anhydrous copper (II) sulfate and watch it turn blue!</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 20px;"><br /></span></span><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img src="http://img1.photographersdirect.com/img/13429/ps1104605.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Adding water to anhydrous copper sulphate</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: center;">
</div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>2.29 describe a physical test to show whether water is pure</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Heat the water and use a thermometer to check if it boils at exactly 100°C. Pure water boils at exactly 100°C. Or you can cool it until it freezes, it should freeze at exactly 0°C. My teacher said it's safer to state both, as <i>pure water</i> is the only substance that has these specific boiling and freezing points, whereas another substance might boil/freeze at either temperature. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Hope this helped!</div>
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<o:p></o:p></div>Michelle Limhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09339242235492066750noreply@blogger.com13tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4724990750193504065.post-29721612588319595832012-05-21T21:52:00.001+07:002013-06-12T20:29:52.268+07:00Contact Process-Manufacture of sulfuric acid<b style="text-align: justify;">d) The industrial manufacture of chemicals</b><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: red;">This part is for SINGLE SCIENCE.</span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>5.25 recall the raw materials used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">The raw materials are:</span></div>
<br />
<ul>
<li style="text-align: justify;">sulphur</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">air (oxygen)</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">water</li>
</ul>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>5.26 describe the manufacture of sulfuric acid by the contact process, including the</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>essential conditions:</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>i a temperature of about 450 °C</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>ii a pressure of about 2 atmospheres</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>iii a vanadium(V) oxide catalyst</b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><u>Stage 1: making sulfur dioxide</u></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><u><br /></u></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
</div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">You can
either burn sulfur in air:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 5pt;">
<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">S(s) + O<sub>2</sub>(g)</span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 13.5pt;">à</span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">SO<sub>2</sub>(g)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">or heat
sulfide ores strongly in air:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 5pt;">
<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">4FeS<sub>2</sub>(s)
+ 11O<sub>2</sub>(g)</span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 13.5pt;">à</span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"> 2</span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>(s) + 8SO<sub>2</sub>(g)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 5pt;">
<span style="font-size: 18px;">(</span><span style="font-size: 18px;">FeS</span><sub>2 </sub><span style="font-size: 18px;">is pyrite or <i>iron pyrite</i>)</span></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img height="200" src="http://ebid.s3.amazonaws.com/upload_big/0/0/6/1185394643-30504-0.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="200" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Iron pyrite crystals</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><u><br /></u></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><u>Stage 2: Making sulfur trioxide</u></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Now the sulfur dioxide is converted into sulfur trioxide using an excess of air from the previous processes. </div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b>2SO<sub>2</sub>(g) + O<sub>2</sub>(g) <span lang="EN-GB" style="background-color: white; color: #273d49; font-family: 'Cambria Math', serif;">⇌</span> 2SO<sub>3</sub>(g) </b><span style="font-family: 'Cambria Math', serif;">∆</span>H= -196 kJ/mol </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
An excess of oxygen is used in this reaction, because it is important that as much sulfur dioxide as possible is converted into sulfur trioxide. Having sulfur dioxide left over at the end of the reaction is wasteful, and could cause possibly dangerous pollution. (Remember sulfur dioxide can dissolve in water and form acid rain, this can kill plants and animals-by altering pH of water fish live in for example. It will corrode limestone which is basically calcium carbonate. It can also leach nutrients from the soil.)</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
As the forwards reaction is exothermic, there would be a higher percentage conversion of sulfur dioxide into sulfur trioxide at a low temperature. (Remember your equilibrium stuff, go to my equilibrium post if you want to revise that first.)</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
However, at a low temperature, the rate of reaction would be very slow. 450°C is a compromise. Even so, there is already about a 99.5% conversion. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
There are 3 gas molecules on the left-hand side of the equation, but only 2 on the right. Reactions in which number of gas molecules decrease are favoured by high pressures. (Remember Le Chatelier's principle where you're trying to remove the change, if you increase pressure, moving the equilibrium to the side with less gas molecules would decrease pressure.) In this case though, the conversion is so good at low pressures already that it isn't economically worthwhile to use higher ones. So a pressure of 2 atmospheres is sufficient.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The catalyst, vanadium (V) oxide, has no effect on the percentage conversion, but helps to speed up the reaction. Without the catalyst, the reaction would be extremely slow. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Remember, catalysts remain chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction. They help to speed up the rate of reaction, by providing an alternative pathway with a lower activation energy. Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy needed for a reaction to take place. So if the activation energy is lowered, more particles will have the required activation energy so a greater number of the collisions will be <i>effective</i>. Effective collisions are ones where reactions actually take place. Sometimes particles collide without reacting because they don't have the minimum activation energy required.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-cdk-z0pPNKA/T7pXgAH85rI/AAAAAAAAAQM/lVPFgMkjGW4/s1600/Fullscreen+capture+21052012+095619+PM.bmp.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="168" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-cdk-z0pPNKA/T7pXgAH85rI/AAAAAAAAAQM/lVPFgMkjGW4/s320/Fullscreen+capture+21052012+095619+PM.bmp.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Sulfur dioxide is converted into sulfur trioxide</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<u><br /></u></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><u>Stage 3: Making the sulfuric acid</u></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><u><br /></u></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In principle, you can react sulfur trioxide with water to make sulfuric acid. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
SO<sub>3</sub>(g) + H<sub>2</sub>O(l) <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>(aq)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In practice, this produces an uncontrollable fog of concentrated sulfuric acid. Instead, the sulfur trioxide is absorbed in concentrated sulfuric acid to give <b>fuming sulfuric acid </b>(also called <b>oleum</b>). </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>(l) +SO<sub>3</sub>(g)
<span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> H<sub>2</sub>S<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub> (l)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This is converted into twice as much concentrated sulfuric acid by careful addition of water. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
H<sub>2</sub>S<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub>(l)
+ H<sub>2</sub>O(l) <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> 2H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>(l)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
I'm not sure which equation you guys have learnt, so I've included both the principle and the real life one. :)</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>5.27 recall the use of sulfuric acid in the manufacture of detergents, fertilisers and paints</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Sulfuric acid has a wide range of uses throughout the chemical industry. The highest single use is in making fertilisers (including ammonium sulfate and 'superphosphate'-essentially a mixture of calcium phosphate and calcium sulfate).</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
It is also used in the manufacture of detergents and paints. If you look at the list of ingredients on any industrial or domestic detergents (including shampoos and liquid 'hand-soaps) and find the words 'sulfate' or 'sulfonate', then sulfuric acid was used in the manufacturing process. Even those simply labelled as containing 'anionic surfactants' almost certainly contain these sorts of ingredients, even if they don't name them.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In paint manufacture, sulfuric acid is used in extracting the white pigment titanium oxide, TiO<sub>2 </sub>from titanium ores.</div>
Michelle Limhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09339242235492066750noreply@blogger.com16tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4724990750193504065.post-63825608340869868742012-05-20T21:15:00.000+07:002012-08-23T11:05:58.492+07:00Group 1 elements-lithium, sodium and potassium<span style="color: red;">Update: I've included the trends, physical and chemical properties of Group 1 elements as requested by someone. Some information taken from Edexcel Chem textbooks. :) </span><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Section 2: Chemistry of the elements</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">part b) Group 1 elements-lithium, sodium and potassium</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><b>2.6 describe the reactions of these elements with water and understand that the reactions </b><b>provide a basis for their recognition as a family of elements</b></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: inherit;">2.7 recall the relative reactivities of the elements in Group 1</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: inherit;">Alkali metal<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: inherit;">Hydroxide solution produced<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: inherit;">Gas produced<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: inherit;">Rate of gas produced<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Lithium<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Lithium hydroxide<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Hydrogen<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Fairly vigorous<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Sodium<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Sodium hydroxide<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Hydrogen<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Vigorous<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Potassium<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Potassium hydroxide<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Hydrogen <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Very vigorous<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Rubidium<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Rubidium hydroxide<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Hydrogen<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Explosive<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Caesium <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Caesium hydroxide<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Hydrogen <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Extremely explosive<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">As you can see, the reactions get more violent as you go down the group, telling you that the metals are more reactive down the group. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Describe what happens when sodium is added to water: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">When sodium is added to water, it reacts very quickly and
vigorously. The reaction is exothermic and the heat produced melts the sodium.
The molten sodium darts around the water surface and a yellow flame is seen.
You may see a bit of fizzing/bubbling (effervescence) as hydrogen is
evolved. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Remember MM-FF. Melts, moves, floats, fizzes </span><br />
<span style="color: red; font-family: inherit;">Li, Na and K are all less dense than water, hence they <i>float </i>on water. </span><br />
<span style="color: red; font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Write word equations to show the reactions of lithium, sodium and potassium with water:</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Lithium + water </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">
lithium hydroxide + hydrogen<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Sodium + water </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"> sodium
hydroxide + hydrogen<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Potassium + water </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">
potassium hydroxide + hydrogen<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: left;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">So you see they all form hydroxides, and since all group 1 metal compounds are soluble it dissolves to form an alkali. (All alkalis are just soluble bases, but not all bases are alkalis, for example metal oxides are bases but not all of them are soluble to form alkalis.. e.g. Copper (II) oxide.)</span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">If they ask you about what colour the solution will turn if
universal indicator is added, it will turn blue or purple. This is because the
solution is alkaline, and if they ask you to state what ion causes this, it’s
the OH<sup>-</sup> ion (hydroxide ion). They are called alkali metals for a reason!</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><b>2.8 explain the relative reactivities of the elements in Group 1 in terms of distance </b></span><b style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">between the outer electrons and the nucleus. (single science)</b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">As you go down the group the metals become more and more reactive. This is because their atoms get bigger, so the outer shell electrons are further away from the nucleus. So the electrostatic force between the nucleus and the outer shell electron (OSE) is weaker, hence it is easier to lose the OSE (alkali metals have only 1 OSE). The atoms want to lose the OSE to form full outer shells so they are more stable and unreactive after that. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
</div>
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Also, you can think of how as the atoms get bigger, there are more electron shells in between the OSE and the nucleus. You can think of them as 'shields', so the force of the nucleus on the OSE is weaker the bigger the atom. </span></div>
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: purple; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">The following is extra information someone has requested. </span><br />
<span style="color: purple; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: purple; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><b>Physical Properties</b></span><br />
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Melting Point (</span></b><b><span lang="EN-GB">°</span><span lang="EN-GB">C)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Boiling Point (</span></b><b><span lang="EN-GB">°</span><span lang="EN-GB">C)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Density (g/cm<sup>3</sup>)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Lithium - Li <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">181<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-GB">1342<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-GB">0.53<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Sodium - Na<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-GB">98<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-GB">883<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-GB">0.97<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Potassium - K<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-GB">63<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-GB">760<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-GB">0.86<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160">
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Rubidium - Rb<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-GB">39<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-GB">686<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-GB">1.53<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Caesium - Cs<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">29<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-GB">669<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">1.88<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br />
<br />
<ul>
<li><span style="color: purple;">You will notice that the melting and boiling points of the elements are very low for metals, and decrease as you go down the group.</span></li>
<li><span style="color: purple;">Their densities tend to increase, but potassium has a lower density than sodium, so the densities don't increase that tidily. Lithium, sodium and potassium are all less dense than water, hence will float on it. </span></li>
<li><span style="color: purple;">The metals are very soft and can be easily cut with a knife. They get softer as you go down the Group. They are shiny and silver when freshly cut, but tarnish within seconds on exposure to air. </span></li>
</ul>
<div>
<span style="color: purple;"><b>Storage and handling</b></span></div>
<div>
<span style="color: purple;">All these metals are extremely reactive, and get more reactive as you go down the Group. They all react quickly with air to form oxides, and react between rapidly and violently with water to form strongly alkaline solutions of the metal hydroxides.</span></div>
<div>
<span style="color: purple;"><br /></span></div>
<div>
<span style="color: purple;">To prevent them from reacting with oxygen/water vapour in the air, lithium, sodium and potassium are stored under oil. Rubidium and caesium are so reactive that they have to be stored in sealed glass tubes to stop any possibility of oxygen getting to them. </span></div>
<div>
<span style="color: purple;"><br /></span></div>
<div>
<span style="color: purple;">Great care must be taken not to touch any of these metals with bare fingers. There could be enough sweat on your skin to give a reaction producing lots of heat and a very corrosive metal hydroxide. </span></div>
<div>
<span style="color: purple;"><br /></span></div>
<div>
<span style="color: purple;"><b>Compounds of the alkali metals</b></span></div>
<div>
<span style="color: purple;">All Group 1 metal ions are colourless. That means that their compounds will be colourless or white unless they are combined with a coloured negative ion. For instance, Potassium dichromate (VI) is orange, because the dichromate (VI) ion is orange. Group 1 compounds are typical ionic solids and are mostly soluble in water.</span></div>
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-O-N88BU2noM/UDWsDsfJ85I/AAAAAAAAAaM/t9CjLIOCAf8/s1600/Fullscreen+capture+23082012+110822+AM.bmp.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-O-N88BU2noM/UDWsDsfJ85I/AAAAAAAAAaM/t9CjLIOCAf8/s320/Fullscreen+capture+23082012+110822+AM.bmp.jpg" width="225" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: purple;"><br /></span></div>
<div>
<span style="color: purple;"><b>Summary of the main features of the Group 1 elements:</b></span></div>
<div>
<span style="color: purple;">Group 1 elements:</span></div>
<div>
<ul>
<li><span style="color: purple;">are metals</span></li>
<li><span style="color: purple;">are soft with melting points and densities very low for metals</span></li>
<li><span style="color: purple;">have to be stored out of contact with air or water</span></li>
<li><span style="color: purple;">react rapidly with air to form coatings of the metal oxide</span></li>
<li><span style="color: purple;">react with water to produce an alkaline solution of the metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas</span></li>
<li><span style="color: purple;">increase in reactivity as you go down the Group</span></li>
<li><span style="color: purple;">form compounds in which the metal has a 1+ ion</span></li>
<li><span style="color: purple;">have mainly white compounds which dissolve to produce colourless solutions</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
Michelle Limhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09339242235492066750noreply@blogger.com9tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4724990750193504065.post-21706729184303071902012-05-19T22:01:00.002+07:002014-06-27T11:21:41.238+07:00Haber Process<b style="text-align: justify;"><u><span style="background-color: white; font-size: large;">Section 5: part d) The industrial manufacture of chemicals</span></u></b><br>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;">-for double award you only need to know the <b>Haber Process</b>, Single Award people, you also need to know the Contact Process for the manufacture of Sulphuric Acid!</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="background-color: white;"><br></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><b>5.21 recall that nitrogen from air, and hydrogen from natural gas or the cracking of </b><b>hydrocarbons, are used in the manufacture of ammonia</b></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;">So if they ask what are the raw materials used in the Haber process, you know it. It's nitrogen from the air and hydrogen either from natural gas, which is methane (C<b>H<sub>4</sub></b>); or from the cracking of hydrocarbons. (Cracking is in the Crude Oil post.) </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><br></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><br></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><b>5.22 describe the manufacture of ammonia by the Haber process, including the essential </b><b>conditions:</b></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="background-color: white;">i. a temperature of about 450°C</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="background-color: white;">ii. a pressure of about 200 atmospheres</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="background-color: white;">iii. an iron catalyst</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="background-color: white;"><br></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;">Remember these conditions!! And remember that the reaction is <i><b>reversible</b></i>. Also, the forwards reactions is <b><u>exothermic</u></b>. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
</div>
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><strong><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt; line-height: 115%;">N<sub>2</sub> + 3H<sub>2</sub> </span></strong></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px; text-align: justify;">⇌</span><strong><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> 2NH<sub>3</sub></span></strong></div>
<strong><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><sub style="background-color: white;"><br></sub></span></strong>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><img height="30" src="http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/equilibria/habereq.gif" width="640">
</span></div>
</div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><br></span>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><br></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;">So decreasing the temperature would actually increase the yield, however, it is still done at a fairly high temperature to speed up the reaction. It makes the rate of reaction faster so the manufacturers get their ammonia quicker, as they say, time is money. The reaction would be too slow otherwise at low temperatures. It would be useless to have a low temperature and achieve a high yield of ammonia if it's going to take ages. <span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">You need the gases to reach equilibrium within the very short time that they will be in contact with the catalyst in the reactor.</span>So 450°C is a compromise, and still produces a reasonably high proportion of ammonia. </span></span><br>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br></span></span>
<span style="background-color: white;">The catalyst does <b>NOT</b> affect the amount of products made. The yield of ammonia stays the same, you just get it faster because it <b>speeds up the reaction</b> by lowering the activation energy needed for the reaction. :)
</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><br></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;">Increasing the pressure would favour the forwards reaction which is what is wanted, to get more ammonia. This is because if you look at the balanced equation, there are 4 moles of gas on the reactants side (left) but 2 moles of gas (ammonia) on the right hand side (products). So according to Le Chatelier's principle where you try to remove the change, if you increase pressure, the equlibrium would move to the right hand side to decrease pressure. And the products have less pressure because there are only 2 moles there.</span><br>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;"><br></span>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Also, just as an extra, just thought that this will be useful to know and is very logical: :)</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Credit for the information goes to </div><div style="text-align: justify;">http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/equilibria/haber.html</div><div style="text-align: justify;">And no plagiarism was intended! </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><i style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Rate considerations</span></i></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Increasing the pressure brings the molecules closer together. In this particular instance, it will increase their chances of hitting and sticking to the surface of the catalyst where they can react. The higher the pressure the better in terms of the rate of a gas reaction.</span></span><br>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br></span></span>
<b><i style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Economic considerations</span></i></b><br>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Very high pressures are very expensive to produce on two counts.</span></span><br>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">You have to build extremely strong pipes and containment vessels to withstand the very high pressure. That increases your capital costs when the plant is built.</span></span><br>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">High pressures cost a lot to produce and maintain. That means that the running costs of your plant are very high.</span></span><br>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br></span></span>
<b><i style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The compromise</span></i></b><br>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">200 atmospheres is a compromise pressure chosen on economic grounds. If the pressure used is too high, the cost of generating it exceeds the price you can get for the extra ammonia produced.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="background-color: white;"><br></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="background-color: white;"><br></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><b>5.23 understand how the cooling of the reaction mixture liquefies the ammonia produced and </b><b>allows the unused hydrogen and nitrogen to be recirculated</b></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="background-color: white;"><br></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><img src="http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/equilibria/haberflow.gif">
</span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><br></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;">Separating the ammonia</span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;">When the gases leave the reactor they are hot and at a very high pressure. Ammonia is easily liquefied under pressure as long as it isn't too hot, and so the temperature of the mixture is lowered enough for the ammonia to turn to a liquid. The nitrogen and hydrogen remain as gases even under these high pressures, and can be recycled.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;"><br></span></div>
<div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<b><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;">Recycling</span></i></b></div>
<div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;">At each pass of the gases through the reactor, only about 15% of the nitrogen and hydrogen converts to ammonia. (This figure also varies from plant to plant.) By continual recycling of the unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen, the overall conversion is about 98%.</span></div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><br></span>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="background-color: white;"><br></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="background-color: white;">5.24 recall the use of ammonia in the manufacture of nitric acid and fertilisers</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="background-color: white;"><br></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;">So ammonia is used to make nitric acid and fertilisers, as you know from bio, plants need nitrates to grow.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><br></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;">Just in case you want to know, here are some properties of ammonia:</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<ul>
<li><span style="background-color: white;">alkaline gas (turns damp red litmus paper blue, which is the test for ammonia!)</span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: white;">extremely soluble in water--it forms a weak alkali-->ammonia solution</span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: white;">less dense than air</span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: white;">colourless gas with pungent odour</span></li>
</ul>
<br>Michelle Limhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09339242235492066750noreply@blogger.com17tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4724990750193504065.post-80593987395842725482012-05-19T21:12:00.000+07:002014-09-18T20:37:36.953+07:00Metallic Crystals<div style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<b style="text-align: justify;">1.45 describe a metal as a giant structure of positive ions surrounded by a sea of delocalised electrons</b></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
That's what a metal is, a lattice of positive ions in a sea of delocalised electrons. Basically delocalised electrons is as the name suggests, it's not attached to any particular atom and is able to move freely. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<img src="http://astarmathsandphysics.com/a-level-physics-notes/materials/a-level-physics-notes-the-structure-of-metals-html-5c0bf5a0.gif" /></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>1.46 explain the malleability and electrical conductivity of a metal in terms of its structure and bonding</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Metals can conduct electricity because the delocalised electrons are free to move and carry the charge. The key words here are that the electrons are <i>free to move/mobile </i>and can move through the structure. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Metals are malleable and ductile because they are a lattice structure and arranged in layers, which are able to slide off each other easily when a force is applied. [The layers are the sheets of positive ions.] Thus making it easy to bend and shape-->malleable. Easily pulled out into wires-->ductile. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Metals can be made harder by <b>alloying </b>them with other metals. An alloy is a mixture of metals-for example, brass is a mixture of copper and zinc. In an alloy, the different metals have slightly different sized atoms. This breaks up the regular arrangement and makes it more difficult for the layers to slide. </div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<img src="http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/surfaces/scc/images/scat1_2b.gif" /></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 13px;">a pure metal, with neat layers that would easily slide over each other</span></div>
<div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<img src="http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/images/130_alloy.gif" /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 13px;">alloy: the atoms have different sizes, so it disrupts the regular packing and makes it much more difficult for particles to slide over each other when a force is applied. this tends to make alloys harder than the individual metals that make them up. </span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 13px;"><br /></span></div>
A common example of an alloy is stainless steel, which is iron mixed with chromium and nickel. The chromium and nickel form strong oxide layers which protect the iron. This is why <i>stainless </i>steel is so resistant to corrosion. Obvious uses include kitchen sinks, saucepans, knives and forks and gardening tools. But there are also major uses for it in the brewing, dairy and chemical industries where corrosion-resistant vessels are essential.<br />
<br />
I'm sure you all know the difference between elements, compounds and mixture by now. So I'd just like to point out that alloys are considered mixtures rather than a compounds because of the totally variable proportions of the metals. Whereas in water (a compound), every single water molecule has two hydrogen atoms combined with one oxygen atom. In the alloys, the metals can be mixed in any proportions...</div>
Michelle Limhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09339242235492066750noreply@blogger.com16tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4724990750193504065.post-14806524780839615922012-04-27T23:26:00.000+07:002012-06-04T15:44:01.949+07:00Condensation Polymerisation-Nylon<b>Note: This is for SINGLE SCIENCE.</b><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
How to make nylon: (he uses a diamine which is one of the monomers, but doesn't use a dicarboxylic acid so just beware of that. the video's just essentially to show you what it looks like to make nylon, stuff about the monomers are below)</div>
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Reviewing addition polymerisation vs. condensation polymerisation. This is a really good video to show you the difference and to explain it. It may not be about nylon, but the concept is essentially the same and it also loses a water molecule in the process, which is the same as when nylon is produced. </div>
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<b>5.17 recall that nylon
is a condensation polymer<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b>5.18 understand that
the formation of a condensation polymer is accompanied by the release of a
small molecule such as water or hydrogen chloride<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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Condensation
polymers are basically polymers formed through a condensation reaction, where
the monomers react and a polymer is produced, and a small molecule such as
water is also produced as a by-product of the reaction. With condensation
polymers the monomers can be different. <o:p></o:p></div>
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(As opposed to
addition polymers which are produced by the reaction of unsaturated monomers.
See polymerization post…)<o:p></o:p></div>
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<img src="http://www.materialsworldmodules.org/resources/polimarization/amidelinkeqn.gif" />
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<b>5.19 recall the types
of monomers used in the manufacture of nylon<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<a href="http://ibchem.com/drop/nylon2.htm" style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: blue;">http://ibchem.com/drop/nylon2.htm</span></a></div>
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Nylon is made by
condensation polymerization from the monomers <b>dicarboxylic acid</b> and <b>diamine</b>. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><img height="200" src="http://course1.winona.edu/sberg/ChemStructures/Amino2.gif" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="183" /></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: small;">NH<sub>2 </sub>is the amine group. So a diamine has two of these, one at each end: </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
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<img height="148" src="http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRfoG16KiktAbbytK0abkHUBhSVHOTwqYqrWtazAm7YwyismMrgTQ" width="320" /> </div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td><img src="http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSS5qA6ZK9W6Oa-Brrkp7rDdvQLRVYZJgEyOBwmVFiovl7i6TrQ" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption"><span style="font-size: small;">COOH is the carboxyl group. So a dicarboxylic acid has two of these, one at each end:</span><br />
<img alt="Furan 2-5 Dicarboxylic Acid" src="http://www.rowanfinechemicals.in/small-images/furan-2-5-dicarboxylic-acid-840299.jpg" /><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="background-color: white;"><o:p>I believe there are loads of types of nylon and different monomers to make them but this is what I've learned: </o:p></span><br />
<br />
The polymer made from these two six-carbon monomers is known as nylon 6,6. (Nylon products include parachutes and ropes.)<br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="background-color: white;"><o:p>The diamine to form nylon here is 1,6-diaminohexane. Hexane=6, it has 6 carbons as you can see in the diagram below. The adipic acid is basically 1,6 hexane dicarboxylic acid. It also has 6 carbons if you count the carbons from the <b>C</b>OOH groups. </o:p></span></div>
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<img src="http://www.materialsworldmodules.org/resources/polimarization/Nyloneqn.gif" />
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Instead of having to draw out all the carbons, you can replace them with 'R' and just show the functional groups that are reacting: </div>
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<img src="http://www.hferrier.co.uk/higher/unit2e/unit2e4.gif" />
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So you see that the 'OH' on one end of the COOH group forms water with the 'H' from one of the amine groups. --> H<sub>2</sub>O </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
And the 'CO' left bonds with the 'NH'. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
This keeps happening at both ends so they form a long chain polymer. So you see in the above diagram it says 'carboxyl group for further reaction'? The 'OH' there will react with the 'H' from another amine group, remember they are diamines so there are amine groups on both sides. And the CO left will bond with the 'NH' left, and it'll just continue until there are no more reactants left. </div>
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<img src="http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/images2/402polyamide.gif" />
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<b>5.20 draw the structure of nylon in block diagram format.</b><span lang="EN-GB"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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You can replace the carbons in the middle with blocks like this, it would be good if the blocks were different shapes unlike below, just so it's clearer for you, but it's up to you: </div>
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<br />
<img src="http://www.chemistryrules.me.uk/junior/making_nylon.gif" />
</div>Michelle Limhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09339242235492066750noreply@blogger.com13tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4724990750193504065.post-65285794935904861642012-04-25T23:51:00.000+07:002012-06-06T19:46:36.823+07:00Reactivity Series<br />
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Section 2: f) Reactivity series</div>
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Seems boring at first but worth watching, and the teacher's awesome, you'll see. (this links to spec 2.30)</div>
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sodium + water in a 40 gallon trash can (y) </div>
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love this one, 'it's coming for you..'</div>
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<b>2.30 recall that metals can be arranged in a reactivity series based on the reactions of the metals and their compounds: potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, copper, silver and gold</b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Mnemonic<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Element<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Symbol<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Reactivity<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Please<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Potassium<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">K<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">As
you can see these metals (excluding carbon) are above hydrogen in the
reactivity series so they react with acids and displace hydrogen gas. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Metal
+ acid </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 11pt;">à</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">
metal salt + <i>hydrogen<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Send<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.15pt;" valign="top" width="168"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Sodium<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Na<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Little<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Lithium<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Li<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Charles<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Calcium<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Ca<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">McClean<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Magnesium<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Mg<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">A<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Aluminium<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Al<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 124.95pt;" valign="top" width="167"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Common<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.15pt;" valign="top" width="168"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Carbon<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">C<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 124.95pt;" valign="top" width="167"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Zebra<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.15pt;" valign="top" width="168"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Zinc<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Zn<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 124.95pt;" valign="top" width="167"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">If<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.15pt;" valign="top" width="168"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Iron<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Fe<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 124.95pt;" valign="top" width="167"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">The<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.15pt;" valign="top" width="168"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Tin<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Sn<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 124.95pt;" valign="top" width="167"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Lame<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.15pt;" valign="top" width="168"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Lead<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Pb<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 124.95pt;" valign="top" width="167"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Horse<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.15pt;" valign="top" width="168"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Hydrogen<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">H<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.5in;" valign="top" width="144"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">H<sup>+
</sup>ions are responsible for acidic properties. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 124.95pt;" valign="top" width="167"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Can’t<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.15pt;" valign="top" width="168"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Copper<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Cu<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td rowspan="5" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.5in;" valign="top" width="144"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">These
elements are below hydrogen so they do not react with acids. (Acids contain H<sup>+</sup>
ions)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Exception:
Copper reacts with concentrated nitric acid, the nitrate ions oxidize copper.
But that’s not really important)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 124.95pt;" valign="top" width="167"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Munch<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.15pt;" valign="top" width="168"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Mercury<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Hg<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 124.95pt;" valign="top" width="167"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Some<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.15pt;" valign="top" width="168"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Silver<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Ag<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 124.95pt;" valign="top" width="167"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Grass<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.15pt;" valign="top" width="168"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Gold<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Au<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 124.95pt;" valign="top" width="167"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Properly<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.15pt;" valign="top" width="168"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Platinum<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Pt<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>2.31 describe how reactions with water and dilute acids can be used to deduce the following</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>order of reactivity: potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, and</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>copper</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Reactions with cold water: </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Basically, you will see that the higher up the metal in the reactivity series, the more vigorous the reaction. For example, the reaction of some alkali metals and water:</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; text-align: justify;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Alkali
metal<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Hydroxide
solution produced<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Gas produced<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Rate
of gas produced<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Potassium <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Potassium hydroxide<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Hydrogen <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Very vigorous<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Sodium <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Sodium hydroxide<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Hydrogen<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Vigorous <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Lithium <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Lithium hydroxide<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Hydrogen<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Fairly vigorous<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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They love asking about sodium. </div>
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"Describe what happens when sodium is added to water" and stuff.. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Well when sodium is added to water, it reacts very quickly and vigorously. It's an exothermic reaction and the heat produced causes the sodium to melt. The molten sodium darts around the water surface and a yellow flame is seen. You may see a bit of fizzing/bubbling (effervescence) as hydrogen is evolved. </div>
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Remember MM-FF. Melts, moves, floats, fizzes</div>
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<br /></div>
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With Calcium, it reacts gently with cold water you may see some bubbles and calcium hydroxide is formed, or better known to some as limewater. So you will see a white precipitate forming as hydroxides are actually insoluble unless it's an alkali metal hydroxide. (All alkali metal salts and hydroxides are soluble.) </div>
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<br /></div>
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Magnesium reacts slowly in water but reacts vigorously with steam. The reason why magnesium doesn't really react with cold water is that it becomes coated with magnesium hydroxide, which is insoluble, so it prevents water coming into contact with the magnesium. Magnesium also burns with a bright white flame and white magnesium oxide ash is formed. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Zinc and iron don't react with cold water, but they react with steam to form oxides. Neither metal burns like magnesium. </div>
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Copper doesn't react with water or steam as it is below hydrogen in the reactivity series. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Reactions with acids: </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
I'd say potassium, sodium, lithium and calcium are probably too reactive to react with dilute acids and would be quite dangerous. Too reactive to add safety to acids. They're already pretty violent with water. Basically the reaction would be exothermic and a lot of heat is produced, hence the hydrogen evolved could ignite and catch fire. </div>
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</div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Metal + acid </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><b> metal salt
+ hydrogen</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
You can tell the metal's position in the reactivity series by seeing how many bubbles are formed, or how fast. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
You can also: add a small piece of the metal to some cold water. If there is any rapid reaction, then the metal must be above magnesium in the reactivity series. If there isn't any reaction, add a small amount of the metal to some dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute sulphuric acid. If there isn't any reaction in the cold, warm/heat it carefully. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
If there's still no reaction, the metal is probably below hydrogen in the reactivity series. If there is a reaction, then it is somewhere between magnesium and hydrogen. </div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>2.32 deduce the position of a metal within the reactivity series using displacement reactions </b><b>between metals and their oxides, and between metals and their salts in aqueous solutions</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Any metal higher in the reactivity series will displace one lower down from its compound. So for example a reaction with magnesium and copper (II) oxide will result in the magnesium displacing (pushing out) the copper from its oxide, so the magnesium basically replaces it. </div>
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</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Magnesium + copper (II) oxide </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">
magnesium oxide + copper<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Mg (s) + CuO (s) </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"> MgO (s)
+ Cu (s)<span style="font-size: 11pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">It's the same thing with metals and a solution of their salt. The more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal. For example, the reaction between zinc and copper (II) sulphate solution:</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">The copper is displaced by the more reactive zinc. The blue colour of the copper (II) sulphate solution fades as colourless zinc sulphate solution is formed. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"><br /></span></div>
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</div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Zinc + copper sulphate </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"> zinc
sulphate + copper<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Zn (s) + CuSO<sub>4</sub> (aq) </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"> ZnSO<sub>4
</sub>(aq) + Cu (s) <span style="font-size: 11pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<b>2.33 understand oxidation and reduction as the addition and removal of oxygen respectively</b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Oxidation could mean the addition of oxygen, and reduction could mean the removal of it, but also remember that it can be about electrons: </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>OILRIG = Oxidation is Loss, Reduction is Gain</b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
So if something has lost electrons, it is oxidised.</div>
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Likewise if something has gained electrons, it has been reduced. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>2.34 understand the terms redox, oxidising agent and reducing agent</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
A redox reaction is a reaction in which both <b>red</b>uction and <b>ox</b>idation are occurring. They always go together. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
An oxidising agent is a substance that causes another substance to be oxidised. So it causes something else to lose electrons, and gains these electrons itself. So the oxidising agent itself is reduced. *This confuses people!! Remember that oxidising agent doesn't get oxidised, don't let the name fool you.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
An example of good oxidising agents are the halogens. Especially fluorine, which is super reactive. They only need to gain one electron to get a full outer shell so they easily oxidise other elements, such as the alkali metals which only need to lose one electron too. A common example is sodium chloride-NaCl--your common table salt. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
To oxidise something can also involve oxygen, where oxygen is added to a substance. (See previous specification point)</div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
A reducing agent is a substance that reduces something else. So it causes the substance to gain electrons, by losing electrons itself. So the reducing agent is said to be oxidised. It can also be taken as the reducing agent takes away oxygen from the other substance, such as: </div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Magnesium + copper (II) oxide </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"> magnesium oxide + copper</span>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">So here the magnesium is the reducing agent, whilst the copper (II) oxide is the oxidising agent. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>2.35 recall the conditions under which iron rusts</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Iron rusts in the presence of oxygen and water. Rusting is accelerated in the presence of electrolytes such as salt. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Note: Many metals corrode, but it is only the corrosion of <i>iron</i> that is referred to as <i>rusting</i>. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>2.36 describe how the rusting of iron may be prevented by grease, oil, paint, plastic and </b><b>galvanising</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Obviously to prevent rusting you need to keep oxygen and water away from the iron. You can do this by painting it, or coating it in oil/grease, or covering it with plastic. But once the coating is broken, the iron will rust. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Coating the iron with a metal below it in the reactivity series (such as tin) is just a barrier method. Once the layer of tin on the iron is scratched, a tin can, for example, will rust very quickly. This is because the iron is more reactive than the tin and the tin won't prevent it. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>2.37 understand the sacrificial protection of iron in terms of the reactivity series.</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Galvanised</b> iron is iron that is coated with a layer of zinc. It serves as a barrier to air and water. But unlike tin, if it is scratched, the iron still doesn't rust. This is because zinc is more reactive than iron, and so corrodes instead of the iron. So the zinc is 'sacrificed' for the iron.<br />
<br />
Galvanising is the term used only when iron/steel is coated with a protective layer of zinc, with other metals, it is sacrificial protection. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>Michelle Limhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09339242235492066750noreply@blogger.com19tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4724990750193504065.post-58752883915089300402012-04-24T20:59:00.002+07:002012-08-03T13:15:17.125+07:00Electrolysis<b style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><u><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">Electrolysis</span></u></b><br />
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">1.47 understand an
electric current as a flow of electrons or ions</span></b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">Current is basically a flow of charged particles and in a metal
wire, it is a flow of electrons. These have a negative 1 charge. Ions are
charged particles too as they have lost or gained electrons. The movements of
these ions are responsible for the conduction of electricity. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">1.48 understand why covalent compounds do not conduct electricity</span></b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">Covalent compounds do not
have spare free electrons that can move and carry the charge; and neither do
they contain ions-it’s a <i>covalent </i>compound
not an <i>ionic </i>compound. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">1.49 understand why ionic compounds conduct electricity only when
molten or in solution</span></b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">When they are a solid the
ions are not free to move and carry the charge. When they are molten-as in it
is in melted form-the ions are free to move. Remember in liquids the particles
are able to slide over each other and move whereas in solids the particles can
only vibrate around a fixed position. When the ionic compound is dissolved in a
solvent to form a solution the ions are also made free to move. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">1.50 describe simple experiments to distinguish between
electrolytes and non-electrolytes<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<a href="http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/how-to-distinguish-electrolytes-from-nonelectrolyt.html"><span style="color: blue;">http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/how-to-distinguish-electrolytes-from-nonelectrolyt.html</span></a><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">1.51 recall that electrolysis involves the formation of new
substances when ionic compounds conduct electricity</span></b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">Passing an electric current through a compound which is either
molten or in solution causes chemical changes, the chemical reactions produce new
products—new substances. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">1.52 describe simple experiments for the electrolysis, using inert
electrodes, of molten salts such as lead (II) bromide</span></b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTPZiyp04vYauhKCCJNbT0KlgOKOVo3gUXfAVPMLDn1OA7oZFzx9o63_VvLGl8nW6L6FSYvBZU334-frUSKKY2Dbf2U3QKm_bqprpjtuSNT5iMIM19FdenFdnSN9vJYGTcfqPzCL_Zopw/s1600/500px-Motion_electron.png" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div align="center" style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><i><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br class="Apple-interchange-newline" />Right hand electrode: Cat</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">hode-attracts <i>cat</i>ions-is the negative electrode, as it is attracting positive ions.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div align="center" style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><i><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Left hand electrode: An</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">ode-attracts <i>an</i>ions-is the positive electrode, as it is attracting negative ions.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div align="center" style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: small;">[Opposite charges attract]</span></b></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: center;">
</div>
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">Nothing happens until the
lead (II) bromide melts. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">Lead (II) bromide is an
ionic compound. The solid consists of a giant structure of lead (II) ions and
bromide ions packed regularly in a crystal lattice. It doesn’t have any mobile
electrons, and the ions are locked tightly in the lattice and aren’t free to
move. The solid lead (II) bromide doesn’t conduct electricity. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">As soon as the solid
melts, the ions do become free to move around, and it is this movement that
enables the electrons to flow in the external circuit. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">Electrodes are made out of
carbon-which is inert (unreactive). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">As soon as you connect the
power source, it pumps any mobile electrons away from the left-hand electrode
towards the right-hand one. The excess of electrons in the right-hand electrode
makes it negatively charged-called the cathode. The left-hand electrode is
positively charged because it is short of electrons. There is a limit to how
many electrons can squeeze into the negative electrode (Cathode) because of the
repulsion by the electrons already there. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">The positive lead (II)
ions are attracted to the cathode, which is the negative electrode. When they
get there, they gain 2 electrons each from the electrode and forms neutral lead
atoms. These fall to the bottom of the container as molten lead. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">Pb<sup>2+ </sup>(l) + 2e<sup>-</sup>
</span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; line-height: 115%;">à</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;"> Pb (l)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">This leaves spaces in the
cathode that more electrons can move into. The power source pumps new electrons
along the wire to fill those spaces. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">Bromide ions are attracted
to the positive anode. When they get there, the extra electron which makes the
bromide ion negatively charged moves onto the anode because this electrode is
short of electrons. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">The loss of the extra
electron turns each bromide ion into a bromine atom. These join in pairs (bond
covalently) to form bromine molecules. Overall:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">2Br<sup>-</sup>(l) </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; line-height: 115%;">à</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;"> Br<sub>2</sub>
(g) + 2e<sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">The new electrons on the
anode are pumped away by the power source to help fill the spaces being created
at the cathode. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">The ions are <b>discharged</b> at the electrodes.
Discharging an ion simply means that it loses its charge-either giving up
electron(s) to the electrode or receiving electron(s) from it. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">Redox reaction</span></b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">Look back at the ionic
equations, see that the lead (II) ions gain electrons at the cathode. Gain of
electrons is reduction. The lead (II) ions are reduced to lead atoms. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">The bromide ions lose
electrons at the anode. Loss of electrons is oxidation. The bromide ions are oxidized
to bromine molecules. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: center;">
<img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgjEQ12o_lf2SZK1lYDS6j9aZUvz9X5_4GsCJUCl9_Me2_JNimPpVuekWiEWK8AQ3XBvpB1feM1Oq6gh6WiJn6lnnufEw9LB9WPoR3pYDn2aNW8aQFt-2lCYwLwSoTpHBcCWKjpmWMHKT8/s400/884260658.jpg.png" />
<br />
<img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTPZiyp04vYauhKCCJNbT0KlgOKOVo3gUXfAVPMLDn1OA7oZFzx9o63_VvLGl8nW6L6FSYvBZU334-frUSKKY2Dbf2U3QKm_bqprpjtuSNT5iMIM19FdenFdnSN9vJYGTcfqPzCL_Zopw/s400/500px-Motion_electron.png" />
</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">1.54 write ionic half-equations representing the reactions at the
electrodes during electrolysis</span></b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
For the electrolysis of lead (II) bromide, PbBr<sub>2<o:p></o:p></sub></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">Cathode:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">Pb<sup>2+ </sup>(l) + 2e<sup>-</sup>
</span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; line-height: 115%;">à</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;"> Pb (l)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">Anode: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">2Br<sup>-</sup>(l) </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; line-height: 115%;">à</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;"> Br<sub>2</sub>
(g) + 2e<sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>Michelle Limhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09339242235492066750noreply@blogger.com51tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4724990750193504065.post-15761977396219927772012-04-11T14:27:00.005+07:002012-08-05T15:19:46.354+07:00Oxygen and Oxides<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #cc0000;">Note: This has just been updated as of 5/08, I expanded and changed bits on Spec 2.25, right at the bottom of this post. :) </span><br />
<b><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: inherit;">2.16 recall the gases present in air and their approximate percentage by volume</span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></b></div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><img src="http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/images/50_composition_of_the_earth.gif" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" /></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: small;">This is for <i>unpolluted, dry </i>air. Normally air contains a little water vapour too!</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: center;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: inherit;">2.17 describe how experiments involving the reactions of elements such as copper, iron and phosphorus with air can be used to determine the percentage by volume of oxygen in air</span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: inherit;">An experiment
was carried out to find the percentage of air that is oxygen. 100 cm<sup>3</sup> of air was passed from
side to side over copper that was being heated with a Bunsen. All the oxygen in the air will react with the
copper. No air could get in or out of
the system while it was passed to and fro between the syringes. As it was passed to and fro, the volume of
air went down. It was passed until the
volume stopped decreasing, and a few minutes later the volume of remaining air
was recorded. There was 79 cm<sup>3</sup>
left. This shows that 21cm</span></span><span style="vertical-align: super;">3 </span>of the original 100cm<span style="vertical-align: super;">3 </span>of air was oxygen, because it was the oxygen that reacted with the copper to form black copper oxide. During this experiment, you should see the copper go black as it forms copper (II) oxide.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: -webkit-center;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
copper + oxygen <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> copper (II) oxide<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2Cu (s) + O<sub>2</sub>
(g) <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> 2CuO (s)<o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.3pt;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<span lang="EN-GB"></span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><img src="http://t2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRKPoM0sA1QU5UpYrUk9Isjyv8DRqzV8qSxKXvX_f8l43LQvNZJge2Sene_Iw" /></span></span></div>
</div>
<span lang="EN-GB">
</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="color: blue; font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB">
</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><a href="http://www.gcsescience.com/w10-air-oxygen.htm" target="_blank"><span style="color: blue;">http://www.gcsescience.com/w10-air-oxygen.htm</span></a></span></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB">
</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB">
</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><b><span style="font-family: inherit;">2.18 describe the laboratory preparation of oxygen from hydrogen peroxide</span></b></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Oxygen is most easily made in the lab from hydrogen peroxide solution using manganese (IV) oxide as a catalyst. The reaction is known as the <b>catalytic decomposition </b>(splitting up using a catalyst) of hydrogen peroxide. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
2H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2 </sub>(aq)
<span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> 2H<sub>2</sub>O(l) + O<sub>2</sub>(g)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<img src="http://images.tutorvista.com/content/oxygen-and-sulphur/hydrogen-peroxide-activity-on-manganese-dioxide.gif" />
</div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 20px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">The oxygen produced is collected in an inverted glass cylinder by the downward displacement of water in a trough.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; line-height: 20px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; line-height: 20px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit;">2.19 describe the reactions with oxygen in air of magnesium, carbon and sulphur, and the acid-base character of the oxides produced</span></b></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; line-height: 20px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">When a substance burns in air, it reacts with oxygen gas and is said to be oxidised. </span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
2Mg (s) + O<sub>2 </sub>(g)
<span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> 2MgO (s)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Magnesium burns with a
bright white flame to give a white, powdery ash of magnesium oxide. The product
is basic. </span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
C (s) + O<sub>2</sub>
(g) <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> CO<sub>2 </sub>(g)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Carbon burns with a
yellow flame, to give colourless carbon dioxide. The product is acidic. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
S (s) + O<sub>2 </sub>(g)
<span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> SO<sub>2 </sub>(g) <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Sulphur burns with a
bright blue flame to give colourless sulphur dioxide, the product is acidic. Remember, sulphur dioxide gas is poisonous, and forms <i>acid </i>rain, so it's acidic! <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Any metal forms basic oxides, any non-metal forms acidic oxides. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="line-height: 20px;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit;">2.20 describe the laboratory preparation of carbon dioxide from calcium carbonate and dilute hydrochloric acid</span></b></span></div>
<div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="line-height: 20px;"><b><br /></b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuBjgAykbTx6qXE5OKK9ByPh4talr8IVBgpa_Qjl47R5tjJFDAIEdBY1LkT3vK2tovfa_kXuIjZHACBSFD0qEGzpTT44cAaXY-vzw41YbnXRyEI7HSiM-9R9d_xMDj5wUES62QGc64mu3w/s400/cabon-dioxide-laboratory-preparation.gif" />
</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
The marble chips are basically calcium carbonate. Remember acids react with carbonates to give a salt, carbon dioxide and water. </div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Acid + metal carbonate
<span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> salt + carbon dioxide + water<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"> </span><span lang="EN-GB">CaCO<sub>3 </sub>(s) + 2HCl (aq) </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span><span lang="EN-GB"> CaCl<sub>2 </sub>(aq) + CO<sub>2</sub> (g) + H<sub>2</sub>O (l)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">It displaces the air as it is denser. </span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 20px;"><b><br /></b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 20px;"><b><br /></b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="line-height: 20px;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit;">2.21 describe the formation of carbon dioxide from the thermal decomposition of metal carbonates such as copper (II) carbonate</span></b></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="line-height: 20px;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Most carbonates decompose (split up) when heated to from the metal oxide and carbon dioxide. </span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">In the case of copper (II) carbonate, this is a green powder which decomposes to give copper (II) oxide, which is a black powder and carbon dioxide when heated. </span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-GB">CuCO<sub>3 </sub>(s) </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span><span lang="EN-GB"> CuO (s) + CO<sub>2 </sub>(g)</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 20px;"><b><br /></b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 20px;"><b><br /></b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="line-height: 20px;"><b>2.22 recall the properties of carbon dioxide, limited to its solubility and density</b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="line-height: 20px;"><b><br /></b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="line-height: 20px;">Carbon dioxide is a colourless, odourless gas, denser than air and slightly soluble in water. </span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="line-height: 20px;"><b><br /></b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="line-height: 20px;"><b>2.23 explain the use of carbon dioxide in carbonating drinks and in fire extinguishers, in terms of its solubility and density</b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="line-height: 20px;"><b><br /></b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="line-height: 20px;">It is used in carbonate (fizzy) drinks because it dissolves in water under pressure and when you open the bottle/can, the pressure falls and the gas bubbles out of the solution.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="line-height: 20px;">It is used in fire extinguishers because it is a dense gas, denser than oxygen and can displace it, basically pushing it out of the way so that no more oxygen reaches the fire. Thereby putting it out. </span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="line-height: 20px;"><b><br /></b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="line-height: 20px;"><b>2.24 recall the reactions of carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide with water to produce acidic solutions</b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="line-height: 20px;"><b><br /></b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="line-height: 20px;">Rain is naturally slightly acidic because of dissolved carbon dioxide. Sulphur dioxide makes it even more acidic.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="line-height: 20px;"><b><br /></b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="line-height: 20px;"><b>2.25 recall that sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are pollutant gases which contribute to acid rain, and describe the problems caused by acid rain</b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Acid rain is formed when acidic air pollutants such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide dissolve in rainwater<span style="font-family: inherit;">. </span></span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 22px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides mainly come from power stations and factories burning fossil fuels, or from motor vehicles. The acid rain produces many problems. </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Sulphur dioxide dissolves in water in the atmosphere to form sulphurous acid (</span>H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>3</sub>). In the presence of oxygen in the air, this acid is slowly oxidised to sulphuric acid (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>).<br />
<br />
Oxides of nitrogen also contribute to acid rain. In the presence of oxygen and water, nitrogen dioxide is converted to nitric acid.<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
nitrogen dioxide + water + oxygen <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> acid rain</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
4NO<sub>2</sub> (g) +
2H<sub>2</sub>O (<i>l</i>) + O<sub>2</sub>
(g) <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> 4HNO<sub>3</sub> (aq)<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;">The pH value of unpolluted rainwater is usually slightly below 7. This is because carbon dioxide in the air dissolves in rainwater to form carbonic acid, which is a weak acid.</span><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
CO<sub>2</sub> (g) + H<sub>2</sub>O
(<i>l</i>) <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> (aq)<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;">However, acid rain is much more acidic than rain that only contains carbonic acid. Acid rain has a pH value of 4 or less. Which is slightly less acidic than vinegar, which is at around pH 3. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;">So, <i>what are the effects of acid rain?</i></span><br />
<br />
<ul>
<li>Acid rain reacts with metals and with carbonates in marble and limestone (calcium carbonate). When this happens, metal bridges and stone buildings are damaged, even statues if they're made of limestone. </li>
<li>Acid rain can reduce the pH of natural water bodies from between 6.5 and 8.5 to below 4, which will kill fish and other aquatic life. The water is then too acidic to support life.</li>
<li>Acid rain also leaches important nutrients from the soil and destroys plants. Without these nutrients, plant growth is stunted. In some cases, acid rain dissolves aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)<sub>3</sub>) in the soil to produce Al<sup>3+ </sup> ions, which are toxic to plants. Forests throughout most of Central and Eastern Europe have been destroyed in this manner by acid rain. The plants are literally 'sick' and dying. </li>
</ul>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEio80spmOihoNximdB_oacp1SoewciwrfWMVFb7Upzm32zlqmHwZJNH2Ezaz0Yrk-UWk9xlujg_LGzOxO3QmEOAQeL7hREFS0AE3RcgzXn5-dgTTJ5GSHNLVeUyFhTaKtNEMB1Smm44VJ5y/s1600/acid-rain-stone-erosion-of-statue-1.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">acid rain eroding a statue</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: center;">
</div>
</div>
</span>Michelle Limhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09339242235492066750noreply@blogger.com42tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4724990750193504065.post-55645632881896541072012-04-05T15:32:00.002+07:002012-04-05T15:32:55.684+07:00How to find the chemical formulaA lot of people have trouble finding out the chemical formula of something, so I'll try to explain how I do it.<br />
1. From valencies<br />
2. From names<br />
3. From ionic charges<br />
<br />
<b>1. From valencies</b><br />
You can usually predict the formula of a compound by looking at the valency of the atoms involved. Valency is the combining power of the atom- i.e. how many bonds it can form with another atom. Usually, this is related to its outer shell electron (OSE).<br />
<br />
Example:<br />
Sodium has one OSE, so it can lose one electron. It has a valency of one. Chlorine has 7 OSE, so it can gain one electron. Its valency is also one. When chlorine and sodium combine, one chlorine atom combines with one sodium atom-so the formula of sodium chloride is NaCl.<br />
<br />
Mg has a valency of 2, Cl has a valency of one, so for every Mg, 2 Cl are needed. The formula for magnesium chloride is MgCl<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 17px; vertical-align: sub;">2</span>.<br />
<br />
Rules:<br />
For elements, the valency is related to its position in the periodic table:<br />
<br />
<br />
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
Group no.<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
1<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
2<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
3<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
4<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
5<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
6<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
7<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
Valency<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
1<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
2<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
3<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
4<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
3<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
2<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
1<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<br />
The valency of an element from groups 1-4 equals their group number.<br />
For elements in groups 5-7, the valency equals (8-their group number).<br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="vertical-align: sub;">Valency of some polyatomic ions: </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
Formula<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
NO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
OH<sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
CO<sub>3</sub><sup>2-</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3-</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
Name<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
Ammonium<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
Nitrate<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
Hydroxide<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
Hydrogencarbonate<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
Sulphate<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
Carbonate<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
Phosphate<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
Valency<o:p></o:p></div>
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1<o:p></o:p></div>
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1<o:p></o:p></div>
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1<o:p></o:p></div>
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1<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
2<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
2<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 59.85pt;" valign="top" width="80"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
3<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p>Some atoms (mostly transition metals) can have more than one common valency. In this case, the valency is written as roman numerals in the name:</o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p>e.g. Iron (II) Chloride- FeCl</o:p><span style="vertical-align: sub;">2 </span>This is called 'iron two chloride' </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<sub><o:p></o:p></sub></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p>Iron (III) oxide-</o:p>Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3 </sub>, Iron (II) oxide- FeO</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
Zinc ions are always Zn<sup>2+</sup> and silver always Ag<sup>+</sup></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<sup><o:p></o:p></sup></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Cross over the valencies to get the formula (and simplify, for e.g. CaO, both have valency of 2, so cross over and simplify so its 1:1)</b><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
e.g. Covalent compounds<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A,B=non-metals<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Cross valencies</b><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A<sup>x y</sup>B <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> A<sub>y </sub>B<sub>x<o:p></o:p></sub></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
e.g. C<sup>4</sup> <sup>1</sup>H <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> C<sub>1</sub>H<sub>4 </sub>= CH<sub>4<o:p></o:p></sub></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
e.g. P<sup>3 1</sup>Br <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> PBr<sub>3<o:p></o:p></sub></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<sub><br /></sub></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<sub><br /></sub></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><b>2. From names: </b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<ol>
<li>mono-1</li>
<li>di-2</li>
<li>tri-3</li>
<li>tetra-4</li>
</ol>
<div>
e.g. </div>
<div>
carbon <b>mono</b>xide=CO </div>
<div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Sulphur <b>di</b>oxide= SO<sub>2<o:p></o:p></sub></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Di</b>nitrogen <b>mono</b>xide= N<sub>2</sub>O<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Carbon <b>tetra</b>bromide= CBr<sub>4<o:p></o:p></sub></div>
</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b>3. From ionic charges (for ionic compounds only): </b></div>
<div>
<b><br /></b></div>
<div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(A<sup>x+</sup>)<sub>a </sub>(B<sup>y-</sup>)<sub>b<o:p></o:p></sub></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A=cation-usually metal ion (NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup> is an exception), B=anion-- non-metal ion<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Total positive charge + total negative charge<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
i.e. xa=yb<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 239.4pt;" valign="top" width="319"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
A<sup>+</sup>B<sup>- </sup> <o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 239.4pt;" valign="top" width="319"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
e.g. NaCl, KF, LiBr<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 239.4pt;" valign="top" width="319"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
A<sup>2+</sup>B<sup>2-</sup> <o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 239.4pt;" valign="top" width="319"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
MgO, CaS, BaO<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 239.4pt;" valign="top" width="319"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
A<sup>3+</sup>B<sup>3-<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 239.4pt;" valign="top" width="319"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
AlN, AlP<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 239.4pt;" valign="top" width="319"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
A<sup>2+ </sup>(B<sup>-</sup>)<sub>2<o:p></o:p></sub></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 239.4pt;" valign="top" width="319"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
CaBr<sub>2</sub>, BaCl<sub>2<o:p></o:p></sub></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 239.4pt;" valign="top" width="319"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
(A<sup>+</sup>)<sub>2</sub>B<sup>2-<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 239.4pt;" valign="top" width="319"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
Na<sub>2</sub>O, K<sub>2</sub>S<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 239.4pt;" valign="top" width="319"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
(A<sup>2+</sup>)<sub>3</sub>(B<sup>3-</sup>)<sub>2<o:p></o:p></sub></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 239.4pt;" valign="top" width="319"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
Ca<sub>3</sub>N<sub>2</sub>, Ca<sub>3</sub>P<sub>2<o:p></o:p></sub></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 239.4pt;" valign="top" width="319"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
(A<sup>3+</sup>)<sub>2</sub>(B<sup>2-</sup>)<sub>3<o:p></o:p></sub></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 239.4pt;" valign="top" width="319"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, Al<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3<o:p></o:p></sub></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Charges on some common ions, learn!! </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial;"><tbody>
<tr><td colspan="3" style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 228.2pt;" valign="top" width="304"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
Positive ions/Cations<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td colspan="3" style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 250.6pt;" valign="top" width="334"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
Negative ions/Anions<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 74.9pt;" valign="top" width="100"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Charge<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 77.65pt;" valign="top" width="104"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Name of ion<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 75.65pt;" valign="top" width="101"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Formula<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 74.9pt;" valign="top" width="100"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Charge<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 100.05pt;" valign="top" width="133"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Name of ion<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 75.65pt;" valign="top" width="101"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Formula<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 2in;"><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; height: 2in; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 74.9pt;" valign="top" width="100"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
1+<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; height: 2in; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 77.65pt;" valign="top" width="104"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Ammonium<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Copper (I)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Hydrogen<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Lithium<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Potassium<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Silver<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Sodium<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; height: 2in; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 75.65pt;" valign="top" width="101"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Cu<sup>+<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
H<sup>+<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Li<sup>+</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
K<sup>+</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Ag<sup>+</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Na<sup>+<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; height: 2in; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 74.9pt;" valign="top" width="100"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
1-<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; height: 2in; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 100.05pt;" valign="top" width="133"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Bromide<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Chloride<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Hydroxide<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Fluoride<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Iodide<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Nitrate<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Hydrogencarbonate<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; height: 2in; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 75.65pt;" valign="top" width="101"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Br<sup>-<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Cl<sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
OH<sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
F<sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
I<sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
NO<sub>3</sub><sup>-<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 181.25pt;"><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; height: 181.25pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 74.9pt;" valign="top" width="100"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
2+<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; height: 181.25pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 77.65pt;" valign="top" width="104"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Barium<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Calcium<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Copper (II)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Iron (II)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Lead (II)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Magnesium<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Nickel (II)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Strontium<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Zinc<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; height: 181.25pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 75.65pt;" valign="top" width="101"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Ba<sup>2+<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Ca<sup>2+</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Cu<sup>2+</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Fe<sup>2+</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Pb<sup>2+</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Mg<sup>2+</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Ni<sup>2+</sup><b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Sr<sup>2+</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Zn<sup>2+<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; height: 181.25pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 74.9pt;" valign="top" width="100"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
2-<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; height: 181.25pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 100.05pt;" valign="top" width="133"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Carbonate<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Sulphate<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Sulphite<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Sulphide<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Oxide<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; height: 181.25pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 75.65pt;" valign="top" width="101"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
CO<sub>3</sub><sup>2-<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup><sub><o:p></o:p></sub></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
SO<sub>3</sub><sup>2-</sup><sub><o:p></o:p></sub></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
S<sup>2-</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
O<sup>2-<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 40.8pt;"><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; height: 40.8pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 74.9pt;" valign="top" width="100"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
3+<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; height: 40.8pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 77.65pt;" valign="top" width="104"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Aluminium<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Iron (III)<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; height: 40.8pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 75.65pt;" valign="top" width="101"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Al<sup>3+<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Fe<sup>3+<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; height: 40.8pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 74.9pt;" valign="top" width="100"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
3-<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; height: 40.8pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 100.05pt;" valign="top" width="133"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Nitride<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Phosphate<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; height: 40.8pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0in; width: 75.65pt;" valign="top" width="101"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
N<sup>3-<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0in;">
PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3-<o:p></o:p></sup></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>
<br class="Apple-interchange-newline" /><br />Michelle Limhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09339242235492066750noreply@blogger.com9tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4724990750193504065.post-39894048426662234322012-04-03T22:24:00.000+07:002012-06-06T19:58:42.427+07:00Synthetic polymers<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>From Section 5, part c) Synthetic polymers</b><br />
<b><br /></b><br />
<b>5.14 recall that an addition polymer is formed by joining up many small molecules called monomers</b></div>
<div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>5.15 draw the repeat unit of addition polymers, including poly(ethene), poly(propene) and poly(chloroethene)</b></div>
</div>
<div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>5.16 deduce the structure of a monomer from the repeat unit of an addition polymer</b></div>
</div>
<div>
<b><br /></b></div>
<div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Monomers are small molecules that can join up to make a very large molecule called a polymer.</div>
</div>
<div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
e.g. Starch is a <b>polymer </b>made up of small glucose <b>monomers</b></div>
</div>
<div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
</div>
<div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The monomer in addition polymerisation is unsaturated, i.e. the monomer must have a double bond. This opens up to allow other monomers to join up to form the polymer. </div>
</div>
<div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Watch- Polymers and Monomers made easy, it's a bit long, about 7 minutes, but it's definitely clear and precise.<br />
If the video doesn't come up here, go to youtube, type<br />
<h1 id="watch-headline-title" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #ebebeb; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #333333; height: 1.1363em; line-height: 1.1363em; margin-bottom: 5px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; max-height: 1.1363em; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;">
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-aPm1Tym2jtc/T3sTRLoqsQI/AAAAAAAAAFw/4J3ynZ-Losc/s1600/Repeat+unit-ethene.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-aPm1Tym2jtc/T3sTRLoqsQI/AAAAAAAAAFw/4J3ynZ-Losc/s1600/Repeat+unit-ethene.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Repeat unit of ethene, excuse my poor 'paint' skills, I wish I had a tablet! </td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img height="163" src="http://web.pdx.edu/~wamserc/C334F08/images/E2_2c.gif" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="200" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Repeat unit of propene</td></tr>
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<span style="text-align: center;">According to my teacher, you shouldn't write the 'n' for the repeat unit, only for the polymer to show that there are many more monomers attached to the section you have drawn like the following picture, a lot of the repeat unit for chloroethene makes poly(chloroethene)-obviously you're not going to draw a thousand chloroethene monomers for polychloroethene.. </span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">'n' represents a large but variable number. It simply means that the structure in the bracket repeats itself many times in the molecule. </td></tr>
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To deduce the structure of a monomer from the repeating unit or the structure of the monomer, first find the repeat unit, and then put back the original carbon-carbon double bond. (because this opened up to form the repeat unit, whereby other monomers would join end to end as their bonds open up as well). To find the name, count how many carbons there are in the repeat unit.<br />
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The reason why the repeat units only show 2 carbons is because we're showing what happened to the double bonds. So even if the monomer is pentene with 5 carbons, your repeating unit shows <b>2</b> carbons with 3 hydrogen atoms attached and a <b>C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>7 </sub></b>on the remaining branch, as pentene is <b>C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>10</sub></b><span style="text-align: left;">. And please don't forget that there is <i>no </i>double bond in the repeating unit, it has opened up so don't forget these bonds on the ends with a bracket around it too. :)</span></div>
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<a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/edexcel/fuels/hydrocarbonsrev4.shtml" target="_blank"><span style="color: blue;">http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/edexcel/fuels/hydrocarbonsrev4.shtml</span></a></div>
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<span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/aqa/substancesfromcrudeoil/polymersandethanolrev1.shtml" target="_blank"><span style="color: blue;">http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/aqa/substancesfromcrudeoil/polymersandethanolrev1.shtm</span>l</a></span></div>
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<i><b>An update for people still confused about <u>addition polymerisation</u>: </b></i></div>
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Ethene is one of the alkenes produced by cracking. It is the smallest hydrocarbon containing a carbon-carbon double bond. (Carbon-carbon double bonds obviously need 2 carbons, and ethene has 2. In alkanes it may start with methane, but there is no such thing as methene, as with one carbon atom only, a carbon-carbon double bond cannot exist.)</div>
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Under the right conditions, molecules contain carbon-carbon double bonds can join together to produce very long chains. Part of the double bond is broken, it 'opens up', and the electrons in it are used to join to neighbouring molecules. This is called <b>addition polymerisation</b>. (Don't worry too much about the electrons bit, it's just to help you understand how.)</div>
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Polymerisation is the joining up of lots of little molecules (the <b>monomers</b>) to make one big molecule (the <b>polymer</b>). In the case of ethene, lots of ethene molecules join together to make <b>poly(ethene). </b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="3 ethene monomers (CH2=CH2) side by side" height="200" src="http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/learning/bitesize/standard/chemistry/images/ethene2.gif" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="200" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Three ethene monomers</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="Opening of first ethene double bond to attack the next double bond, which opens up and attacks the next double bond after that" height="200" src="http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/learning/bitesize/standard/chemistry/images/ethene3.gif" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left;" width="200" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Double bonds 'opening up'</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2- carbon chain with open bonds at each end" height="200" src="http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/learning/bitesize/standard/chemistry/images/6a.gif" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left;" width="200" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Joining of monomers to form long carbon chain-poly(ethene)<br />
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The chain length can vary from about 4000 to 40,000 carbon atoms. For normal purposes, this is written using displayed formulae. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-cnSqfJwuN_4/T30hGrIOJUI/AAAAAAAAAF4/cQ3dBfp0pS8/s1600/Displayed+formula+for+poly(ethene).gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-cnSqfJwuN_4/T30hGrIOJUI/AAAAAAAAAF4/cQ3dBfp0pS8/s1600/Displayed+formula+for+poly(ethene).gif" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Please ask your teacher if you are to use the above as a displayed formula for poly(ethene) or the following, both are technically right but I'm not sure which one would be preferred in exams, so please check, I try to not make mistakes, but you guys still have to beware that it's possible. </td></tr>
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<img alt="-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2- carbon chain with open bonds at each end" height="200" src="http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/learning/bitesize/standard/chemistry/images/6a.gif" style="text-align: left;" width="200" /></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, helvetica, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">propene (monomer) → poly(propene) (polymer)</span></div>
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The monomers used to make addition polymers are based on ethene, for e.g. propene. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="Structural formula for propene: 3 carbon chain with double bond between 1st and 2nd carbon. 2 hydrogens are attached to 1st carbon, 1 hydrogen to 2nd carbon and 3 hydrogens to 3rd carbon" src="http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/learning/bitesize/standard/chemistry/images/propene.gif" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; line-height: 18px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: small;">Although this is the usual way to draw the structural formula for propene, for the purposes of showing how the molecule acts as a monomer and can form a polymer it should be drawn in a different way:</span></span><br />
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<img alt="Structural formula for propene, based on ethene: carbon to carbon double bond with methyl group attached to the second carbon" src="http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/learning/bitesize/standard/chemistry/images/propene_2.gif" /></td></tr>
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<img alt="3 monomers of propene (propene drawn based on ethene, with methyl group attached to second carbon)" height="200" src="http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/learning/bitesize/standard/chemistry/images/3monomers.gif" width="200" /><a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/learning/bitesize/standard/chemistry/images/propene1.gif" imageanchor="1"><img alt="Opening of double bonds of 3 propene monomers." border="0" height="200" src="http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/learning/bitesize/standard/chemistry/images/propene1.gif" width="200" /></a><img alt="Part of hydrocarbon polymer chain with methyl group attached to every 2nd carbon" height="200" src="http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/learning/bitesize/standard/chemistry/images/propene2.gif" width="200" /></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="CH2=CHCl" src="http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/learning/bitesize/standard/chemistry/images/chloroethene.gif" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Chloroethene monomer. Now you try to work out how it polymerises. Draw three of these monomers, open up the double bonds, and join them together!</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><b><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; line-height: 18px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">If the structure of the polymer is given then the structure of the monomer can be worked out.</span>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;"><img alt="Part of a polymer chain: the repeating unit is carbon chain with 2 hydrogens attached to the first carbon and a CN group and hydrogen attached to the second carbon" src="http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/learning/bitesize/standard/chemistry/images/cn.gif" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" /></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 18px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">Look for the repeating unit i.e. the part of the molecule that is repeated.</span> </span></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="Repeating unit of 2 carbon as part of carbon chain, with 2 hydrogens attached to 1st carbon and hydrogen and CN group attached to 2nd carbon" src="http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/learning/bitesize/standard/chemistry/images/cn_b.gif" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 18px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">The repeating unit should be made up of two carbon atoms from the main.</span> </span></span></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><img alt="Monomer based on ethene but with CN group attached to 2nd carbon CH2=CHCN" src="http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/learning/bitesize/standard/chemistry/images/cn_monomer.gif" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" /></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 18px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">Now put a double bond between the two carbon atoms to get the monomer.</span> </span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="text-align: justify;">Typed from an edexcel book: </span><br />
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<b>Uses for poly(ethene):</b></div>
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Poly(ethene) comes in two types: low-density poly(ethene) (LDPE) and high-density poly(ethene) (HDPE). Low-density poly(ethene) is mainly used as a thin film to make polythene bags. It is very flexible and not very strong. E.g. those supermarket plastic bags<br />
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High-density poly(ethene) is used where greater strength and rigidity is needed-for example to make plastic bottles such as milk bottles. If you can find a recycling symbol with the letters HDPE next to it, then the bottle is made of high-density poly(ethene). If it has some other letters there, then it is a different polymer. </div>
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<b>Uses of poly(propene):</b></div>
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Poly(propene) is somewhat stronger than poly(ethene). It is used to make ropes and crates (among many other things). If an item has a recycling mark with PP inside it or near it, it is made of poly(propene). </div>
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<b>Uses of poly(chloroethene):</b></div>
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Poly(chloroethene)-PVC-has a lot of uses. It is quite strong and rigid, and so can be used for drainpipes or replacement windows. It can also be made flexible by adding 'plasticisers'. That makes it useful for sheet floor coverings, and even clothing. These polymers don't conduct electricity, and PVC is used for electrical insulation. It is now replacing rubber to insulate wires as it doesn't crack so easily, thus it's safer. (My physics blog talks about electricity and its dangers.) </div>
</div>Michelle Limhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09339242235492066750noreply@blogger.com10tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4724990750193504065.post-54470063551145847242012-04-03T21:23:00.001+07:002018-01-08T19:53:48.938+07:00Mole calculations<span style="color: red;"><b>Updated, as of 06.04.13, with ANSWERS to any qs at the bottom of the post. Don't go straight to them! Try doing the qs first. :) </b></span><br />
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For whoever asked for mole calculations. :)<br />
It's detailed and has some example questions with working out, and some practice questions and tables for you to do too. Hope it helps!<br />
Note that these are taken from my class book. They are not my materials. </div>
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1.15 calculate relative formula masses (Mr) from relative atomic masses (Ar)</div>
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Relative formula mass: the sum of masses of all the atoms in a formula</div>
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Relative atomic mass: the average mass of all the isotopes of an element</div>
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Examples:</div>
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Species</div>
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Formula</div>
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No. of atoms of each element in one molecule</div>
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Ar of each element</div>
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Sum of Ar</div>
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Relative Formula Mass (Mr)</div>
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Carbon dioxide</div>
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CO2</div>
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1 carbon</div>
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2 oxygen</div>
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<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.0326in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
C=12</div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
O=16</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.0152in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
12 + (16 x 2)</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3402in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
44</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.0638in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Oxygen</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .7277in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
O2</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.8923in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
2 oxygen</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.0326in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
O=16</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.0152in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
16 x 2</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3402in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
32</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.0638in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Aluminium oxide</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .7277in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Al2O3</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.8923in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
2 aluminium</div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
3 oxygen</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.0326in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Al=27</div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
O=16</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.0152in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
(27 x 2) + (16 x 3)</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3402in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
102</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.0638in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Aluminium sulphate</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .7277in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Al2(SO4)3</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.8923in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
2 aluminium</div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
3 sulphur</div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
12 oxygen</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.0326in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Al=27</div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
S=32</div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
O=16</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.0152in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
(27 x 2) + (32 x 3) + (16 x 12)</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3402in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
342</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
To calculate relative atomic mass (Ar): the sum of the <span style="font-weight: bold;">relative abundance </span>of each isotope multiplied by its mass number, divided by 100.</div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
E.g. About 75% of all chlorine atoms have a mass number of 35 (18 neutrons), about 25% have a mass number of 37 (20 neutrons).</div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
The relative atomic mass of chlorine is:</div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
(75 x 35) + (25 x 37) / 100 = 35.5</div>
<br />
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; margin: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; margin: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; margin: 0in;">
</div>
<div style="color: navy; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
1.18 carry out mole calculations using relative atomic mass (Ar) and relative formula mass (Mr)</div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<b>n=m/Mr</b></div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<b>Where n=number of moles, m=mass in grams and Mr=relative formula mass</b></div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<img src="http://www.ngfl-cymru.org.uk/appliedscience/images/contents/27/en/59.jpg" height="320" width="320" />
</div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
e.g. how many moles are there in 120g of NaOH(s)?</div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
n=m/Mr = 120g/40 = 3</div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
There are 3 moles.</div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Try filling this out:</div>
<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="direction: ltr;">
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; direction: ltr;" valign="top">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3756in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Substance</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .7361in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Formula</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .6673in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Mr</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3847in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Mass of sample (g)</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 2.5736in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Number of moles in sample (n=m/Mr)</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3756in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
E.g. Water</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .7361in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: inherit;">H<sub>2</sub>O</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .6673in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
18</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3847in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
9</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 2.5736in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
0.5</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3756in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Carbon dioxide</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .7361in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: sub;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .6673in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3847in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
88</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 2.5736in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3756in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Ammonia</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .7361in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .6673in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3847in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
1.7</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 2.5736in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3756in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Sulphur dioxide</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .7361in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .6673in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3847in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
0.64</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 2.5736in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3756in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Sulphur trioxide</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .7361in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .6673in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3847in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
80</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 2.5736in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3756in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Hydrogen bromide</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .7361in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .6673in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3847in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
24.3</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 2.5736in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3756in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Sulphuric acid</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .7361in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
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<br /></div>
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<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3847in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
0.098</div>
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<br /></div>
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Nitric acid</div>
</td>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3847in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
3.15</div>
</td>
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<br /></div>
</td>
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<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3756in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Sodium nitrate</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .7361in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
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<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .6673in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3847in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
21.25</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 2.5736in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
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<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3756in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Sodium carbonate</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .7361in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
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<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .6673in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3847in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
53</div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 2.5736in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
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<div style="font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; margin: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; margin: 0in;">
Example:</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; margin: 0in;">
What mass of hydrogen is produced when 192g of magnesium is reacted with hydrochloric acid?</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; margin: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; margin: 0in;">
Step 1: write a balanced equation for the reaction:</div>
<div style="color: red; font-size: 11.0pt; margin: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri";"> Mg + 2HCl </span><span style="font-family: "wingdings";">à</span><span style="font-family: "calibri";"> MgCl2 + H2</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; margin: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; margin: 0in;">
Step 2: under the equation, fill in all the information you have been given, and also the Mr of the species involved:</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; margin: 0in;">
<br /></div>
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<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
Equation<o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
<td colspan="4" style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 383.05pt;" valign="top" width="511"><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Mg + 2HCl </span><span style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 11pt;">à</span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> MgCl<sub>2 </sub> + H<sub>2<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
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<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
Mass<o:p></o:p></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
192g<o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.8pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
This is the value you want to find<o:p></o:p></div>
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</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
M<sub>r<o:p></o:p></sub></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
24<o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.8pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
2<o:p></o:p></div>
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</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
n<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.8pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; margin: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; margin: 0in;">
Step 3: work out the number of moles of the reactant, using <span style="text-align: justify;">n=m/M</span><sub style="text-align: justify;">r </sub><span style="text-align: justify;">then use the <b>mole ratio </b>of the equation to fill in the number of moles of the product:</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; margin: 0in;">
<span style="text-align: justify;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; margin: 0in;">
</div>
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<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
Equation<o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
<td colspan="4" style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 383.05pt;" valign="top" width="511"><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Mg + 2HCl </span><span style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 11pt;">à</span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> MgCl<sub>2 </sub> + H<sub>2<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
Mass<o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
192g<o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.8pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
This is the value you want to find<o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
M<sub>r<o:p></o:p></sub></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
24<o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.8pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
2<o:p></o:p></div>
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<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
n<o:p></o:p></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 95.75pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: red;">8<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 191.5pt;" valign="top" width="255"><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: red;"> </span><span style="color: red; font-family: "wingdings";">à</span><span style="color: red;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: red;"> 1:1 mole ratio</span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="color: red;">8<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Step 4: now you have the <span style="line-height: 115%;">M</span><sub style="line-height: 115%;">r </sub><span style="line-height: 13px;">and number of moles of the product, rearrange </span></span><span style="text-align: justify;">n=m/M</span><sub style="text-align: justify;">r </sub><span style="text-align: justify;">to find the mass: </span></div>
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<span style="text-align: justify;">m=n x M</span><sub style="text-align: justify;">r</sub></div>
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Equation<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Mg + 2HCl </span><span style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 11pt;">à</span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> MgCl<sub>2 </sub> + H<sub>2<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
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Mass<o:p></o:p></div>
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192g<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="color: red;">16g<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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M<sub>r<o:p></o:p></sub></div>
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24<o:p></o:p></div>
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2<o:p></o:p></div>
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n<o:p></o:p></div>
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8<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-family: "wingdings";">à</span><o:p></o:p></div>
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1:1 mole ratio<o:p></o:p></div>
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8<o:p></o:p></div>
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<sub><o:p></o:p></sub></div>
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Once you are familiar with the process, you don't need a calculation frame, but keep your workings well ordered and logical. </div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; vertical-align: middle;" value="1"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-weight: bold;">What mass of oxygen is needed to react with 8.5g of hydrogen sulphide (H</span><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: sub;">2</span><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-weight: bold;">S)?</span></li>
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2H2S + 3O2 <span style="font-family: "wingdings";">à</span> 2SO2 + 2H2O</div>
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Find out how many moles of hydrogen sulphide there are, since you have its mass.</div>
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n=m/Mr</div>
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n=8.5/34=0.25</div>
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Mole ratio= 2:3 (2 moles of H2S : 3 moles of O2)</div>
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(0.25/2) x 3 = 0.375 --- 0.375 moles of O2 react with 0.25 moles of H2S, now you want to find the mass.</div>
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n=m/Mr</div>
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m= n x Mr</div>
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m= 0.375 x 32 =<u> 12g</u></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; vertical-align: middle;" value="2"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-weight: bold;">Railway lines are welded together by the thermite reaction, which produces molten iron. What mass of iron is formed from 1kg of iron oxide?</span></li>
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Fe2O3 + 2Al <span style="font-family: "wingdings";">à</span> 2Fe + Al2O3</div>
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n=m/Mr</div>
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n=1000g/160=6.25</div>
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Mole ratio= 1:2</div>
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6.25 x 2=12.5</div>
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m=n x Mr</div>
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m= 12.5 x 56 = <u>700g</u></div>
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Practice:</div>
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<li><span style="font-family: "calibri";"><span style="font-size: 15px;">What mass of sodium hydroxide is formed when 46g of sodium reacts with excess water?</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "calibri";"><span style="font-size: 15px;">Calculate the mass of water formed when 32g of oxygen reacts with excess hydrogen.</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "calibri";"><span style="font-size: 15px;">Calcium carbonate thermally decomposes to form calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. If 44g of carbon dioxide are collected, what mass of calcium oxide is formed?</span></span></li>
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1.26 carry out mole calculations using volumes and molar concentrations</div>
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A solution contains a dissolved solute in a certain amount of solvent.</div>
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The concentration of a solution tells us how many moles of the solute are dissolved in one litre<br />
(1 dm<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; vertical-align: super;">3</span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">) of the solvent.</span></div>
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The units for concentration are mol/dm<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; vertical-align: super;">3</span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">, and this is often shortened to M.</span></div>
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Concentration can also be measured in <span style="font-weight: bold;">grams per litre. </span></div>
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<b>n= v x c</b></div>
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<b>Where v= volume (in dm</b><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; vertical-align: super;"><b>3</b></span><b style="font-size: 11pt;">) and c= concentration (in mol/dm</b><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; vertical-align: super;"><b>3</b></span><b style="font-size: 11pt;">)</b></div>
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<img src="http://scienceaid.co.uk/chemistry/applied/images/moletriangle.png" />
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NB: sometimes they give you the volume in cm<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; vertical-align: super;">3</span><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> so be careful, convert it to dm</span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; vertical-align: super;">3</span><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> by dividing by 1000</span></div>
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(1 dm<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; vertical-align: super;">3</span><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> = 1000 cm</span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; vertical-align: super;">3</span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">)</span></div>
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Or, you can just use: n= (v x c) / 1000</div>
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<b><i>Remember to convert cm<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; vertical-align: super;">3</span><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> to dm</span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; vertical-align: super;">3</span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">!</span></i></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">Solution<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">Formula<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">Concentration (mol m<sup>-3</sup>)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">Concentration <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">(g dm<sup>-3</sup>)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">Volume<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 24.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 80.8pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Number of moles<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<tr style="height: 25.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.35pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">Sodium hydroxide<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.05pt;" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">NaOH<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 80.8pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.8pt;" width="85"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">500 cm<sup>3<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 80.8pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.15pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 24.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.35pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">Hydrochloric acid<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 24.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.05pt;" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">HCl<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<span lang="EN-US">0.5<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 24.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 80.8pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 24.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.8pt;" width="85"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">2 dm<sup>3<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 24.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 80.8pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 29.7pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 29.7pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.35pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">Sodium chloride<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<span lang="EN-US">NaCl<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 29.7pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 78.15pt;" width="104"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 29.7pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 80.8pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">58.5<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 29.7pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.8pt;" width="85"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 29.7pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 80.8pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">4</span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 25.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.35pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">Potassium chloride<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.05pt;" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">KCl<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 78.15pt;" width="104"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 80.8pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.8pt;" width="85"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: center; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span lang="EN-US">200 cm<sup>3<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 80.8pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">0.2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.15pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 24.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.35pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">Ammonium chloride<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 24.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.05pt;" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">NH<sub>4</sub>Cl<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 24.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 78.15pt;" width="104"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">0.25<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 24.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 80.8pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 24.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.8pt;" width="85"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">250 cm<sup>3<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 24.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 80.8pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 25.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.35pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">Silver nitrate<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.05pt;" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">AgNO<sub>3</sub><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 78.15pt;" width="104"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 80.8pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.8pt;" width="85"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 80.8pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">0.5<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 25.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 7;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.35pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">Lithium iodide<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.05pt;" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">LiI<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 78.15pt;" width="104"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 80.8pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.8pt;" width="85"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 80.8pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 25.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 8;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.35pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">Sulphuric acid<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<span lang="EN-US">H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">0.2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">1.8<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Potassium nitrate<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">KNO<sub>3<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">150 cm<sup>3<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">0.15<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; vertical-align: middle;" value="1"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">25cm</span><span style="font-size: 11pt; vertical-align: super;">3</span><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> of a solution of 0.1M NaOH is neutralised by 50cm</span><span style="font-size: 11pt; vertical-align: super;">3</span><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> of HCl. What is the concentration of the HCl?</span></li>
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NaOH + HCl <span style="font-family: "wingdings";">à</span> NaCl + H2O</div>
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NB: remember to convert volumes to dm3!</div>
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n= v x c</div>
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n= 0.025 x 0.1=0.0025 mole</div>
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Mole ratio= 1:1, so moles of HCl= 0.0025 mole</div>
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C= n/v</div>
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C= 0.0025/ 0.05=<u>0.05 mol/</u><span style="text-align: justify; text-decoration: underline;">dm</span><sup style="text-align: justify;">3</sup></div>
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<sup><o:p></o:p></sup></div>
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Practice:</div>
<ol style="direction: ltr; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .675in; margin-top: 0in; unicode-bidi: embed;" type="1">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: middle;" value="1"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">What mass of silver chloride precipitate will be produced if 25 cm</span><span style="font-size: 11pt; vertical-align: super;">3 </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">of 0.1M silver nitrate is added to excess sodium chloride solution?(Answer may not be exact, so you give it to 2 significant figures here because the most exact data they give you here is to 2 sig. fig. which is the volume.)</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: middle;" value="2"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">What mass of magnesium will react with 10cm</span><span style="font-size: 11pt; vertical-align: super;">3</span><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> of 1M HCl? Extra: and what volume of hydrogen will be formed? (1 mole of any gas at RTP is 24dm</span><span style="font-size: 11pt; vertical-align: super;">3</span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">)</span></li>
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<span style="color: red; font-size: x-large;"><b>Answers:</b></span></div>
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Substance</div>
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Formula</div>
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Mr</div>
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Mass of sample (g)</div>
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Number of moles in sample (n=m/Mr)</div>
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E.g. Water</div>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">H<sub>2</sub>O<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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18</div>
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9</div>
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0.5</div>
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Carbon dioxide</div>
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CO<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; vertical-align: sub;">2</span></div>
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44</div>
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88</div>
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2</div>
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Ammonia</div>
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NH<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; vertical-align: sub;">3</span></div>
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17</div>
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1.7</div>
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0.1</div>
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Sulphur dioxide</div>
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SO<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; vertical-align: sub;">2</span></div>
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64</div>
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0.64</div>
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0.01</div>
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Sulphur trioxide</div>
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SO<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; vertical-align: sub;">3</span></div>
</td><td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .6673in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin: 0in;">
80</div>
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80</div>
</td><td style="border: 1pt solid rgb(163, 163, 163); padding: 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 2.5736in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin: 0in;">
1</div>
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Hydrogen bromide</div>
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HBr</div>
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81</div>
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24.3</div>
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0.3</div>
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Sulphuric acid</div>
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H<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; vertical-align: sub;">2</span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 17px;">SO</span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; vertical-align: sub;">4</span></div>
</td><td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .6673in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin: 0in;">
98</div>
</td><td style="border: 1pt solid rgb(163, 163, 163); padding: 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3847in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin: 0in;">
0.098</div>
</td><td style="border: 1pt solid rgb(163, 163, 163); padding: 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 2.5736in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin: 0in;">
0.001</div>
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<tr><td style="border: 1pt solid rgb(163, 163, 163); padding: 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3756in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin: 0in;">
Nitric acid</div>
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HNO<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; vertical-align: sub;">3</span></div>
</td><td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .6673in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin: 0in;">
63</div>
</td><td style="border: 1pt solid rgb(163, 163, 163); padding: 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3847in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin: 0in;">
3.15</div>
</td><td style="border: 1pt solid rgb(163, 163, 163); padding: 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 2.5736in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin: 0in;">
0.05</div>
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Sodium nitrate</div>
</td><td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .7361in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin: 0in;">
NaNO<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; vertical-align: sub;">3</span></div>
</td><td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .6673in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin: 0in;">
85</div>
</td><td style="border: 1pt solid rgb(163, 163, 163); padding: 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3847in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin: 0in;">
21.25</div>
</td><td style="border: 1pt solid rgb(163, 163, 163); padding: 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 2.5736in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin: 0in;">
0.25</div>
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Sodium carbonate</div>
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Na<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; vertical-align: sub;">2</span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">CO</span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; vertical-align: sub;">3</span></div>
</td><td style="border-color: #A3A3A3; border-style: solid; border-width: 1pt; padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: .6673in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin: 0in;">
106</div>
</td><td style="border: 1pt solid rgb(163, 163, 163); padding: 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 1.3847in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin: 0in;">
53</div>
</td><td style="border: 1pt solid rgb(163, 163, 163); padding: 4pt; vertical-align: top; width: 2.5736in;"><div style="font-size: 11pt; margin: 0in;">
0.5</div>
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1. What mass of sodium hydroxide is formed when 46g of sodium reacts with excess water?</div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">2 Na<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">+<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">2 H<sub>2</sub>O<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "wingdings"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">2 NaOH<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">+<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">H<sub>2</sub><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">46g<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">1:1 ratio<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">23g<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">40g<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">46g<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">80g</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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2. Calculate the mass of water formed when 32g of oxygen reacts with excess hydrogen.</div>
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<span lang="EN-US">2 H<sub>2<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">+<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">O<sub>2</sub><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "wingdings"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">2 H<sub>2</sub>O<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">1 <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">32g<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">36g<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">(m = n x M<sub>r</sub><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">m = 2 x 18)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 11pt;">3. Calcium carbonate thermally decomposes to form calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. If 44g of carbon dioxide are collected, what mass of calcium oxide is formed?</span><br />
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<span lang="EN-US">CaCO<sub>3</sub><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "wingdings"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">CaO<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">+<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">CO<sub>2<o:p></o:p></sub></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">1 <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">56g</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">44g<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">*Remember that one mole of a substance is equivalent to its RFM in grams. For instance with CaO, the M<sub>r</sub> of Ca is 40, and for O it is 16. Thus the RFM of CaO is 40 + 16 = 56. And since 44g of CO<sub>2</sub> is 1 mole, then one mole of CaO must have been produced too (look at balanced equation), and 1 mole of CaO = 56g. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">Solution<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">Formula<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">Concentration (mol m<sup>-3</sup>)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">Concentration <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">(g dm<sup>-3</sup>)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">Volume<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">Number of moles<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Sodium hydroxide<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">NaOH<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 78.15pt;" width="104"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">40<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">500 cm<sup>3<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">0.5<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<tr style="height: 24.15pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 24.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.35pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">Hydrochloric acid<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 24.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.05pt;" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">HCl<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 24.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 78.15pt;" width="104"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">0.5<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 24.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 80.8pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">18.25<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 24.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.8pt;" width="85"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">2 dm<sup>3<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 24.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 80.8pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 29.7pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.35pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">Sodium chloride<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 29.7pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.05pt;" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">NaCl<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">58.5<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 29.7pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.8pt;" width="85"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">4 dm<sup>3</sup></span></b><b><sup><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></sup></b></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 29.7pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 80.8pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">4</span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.35pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">Potassium chloride<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.05pt;" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">KCl<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 78.15pt;" width="104"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">74.5</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.8pt;" width="85"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: center; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span lang="EN-US">200 cm<sup>3<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">0.2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 24.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.35pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">Ammonium chloride<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 24.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.05pt;" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">NH<sub>4</sub>Cl<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">0.25<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 24.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 80.8pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">13.375</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 24.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.8pt;" width="85"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">250 cm<sup>3<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">0.0625</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<tr style="height: 25.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.35pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">Silver nitrate<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.05pt;" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">AgNO<sub>3</sub><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 78.15pt;" width="104"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 80.8pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">340</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.8pt;" width="85"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">0.25 dm<sup>3</sup></span></b><b><sup><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></sup></b></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 80.8pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">0.5<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.35pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">Lithium iodide<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.05pt;" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">LiI<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 78.15pt;" width="104"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 80.8pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">134<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.8pt;" width="85"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1 dm<sup>3<o:p></o:p></sup></span></b></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 25.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 80.8pt;" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Sulphuric acid<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">0.2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">19.6<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">9 dm<sup>3<o:p></o:p></sup></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">1.8<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Potassium nitrate<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">KNO<sub>3<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">101<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">150 cm<sup>3<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">0.15<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 11pt;">What mass of silver chloride precipitate will be produced if 25 cm</span><span style="font-size: 11pt; vertical-align: super;">3 </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">of 0.1M silver nitrate is added to excess sodium chloride solution?(Answer may not be exact, so you give it to 2 significant figures here because the most exact data they give you here is to 2 sig. fig. which is the volume.)</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">AgNO<sub>3<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">+<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">NaCl<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "wingdings"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">AgCl<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">+<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">NaNO<sub>3<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 66.0pt;" width="88"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">Moles of AgNO<sub>3<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">v<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">x<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">C<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 66.0pt;" width="88"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">0.025<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">x<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">0.1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">0.0025 mol<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 66.0pt;" width="88"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">Moles of AgCl<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">0.0025 mol<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Due to 1:1 ratio<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 66.0pt;" width="88"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">m<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">n<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">x<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">RFM<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<td style="height: 3.35pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 66.0pt;" width="88"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">0.0025<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">X<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">143.5<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="height: 3.35pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 66.0pt;" width="88"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
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<span lang="EN-US">≈</span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">0.36g</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">(volume is only 2 sig. fig.)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 11pt;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 11pt;">2. What mass of magnesium will react with 10cm</span><span style="font-size: 11pt; vertical-align: super;">3</span><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> of 1M HCl? Extra: and what volume of hydrogen will be formed? Assume RTP conditions -- </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11pt; text-align: center;">25</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11pt; text-align: center;">°</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11pt; text-align: center;">C and 1 atm (</span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">1 mole of any gas at RTP is 24dm</span><span style="font-size: 11pt; vertical-align: super;">3</span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">)</span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">Mg<sub><o:p></o:p></sub></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">+<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">2 HCl<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">à</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">MgCl<sub>2<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">+<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">H<sub>2<o:p></o:p></sub></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Moles of HCl<sub><o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">v<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">x<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">C<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">0.01<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">x<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">0.01 moles<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Moles of Mg<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">0.005<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">(due to 1:2 ratio, 0.01 moles of HCl will react with 0.005 moles of Mg)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Mass of Mg<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">n<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">x<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">RFM<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">0.005<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">x<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">24<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">0.12g</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">1 mole of H<sub>2<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">24 dm<sup>3<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">24,000 cm<sup>3<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">0.005 mole of H<sub>2<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">0.005<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">x<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">24,000<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">120 cm<sup>3<o:p></o:p></sup></span></b></div>
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So that's done.. hope the answers help. And good luck with your IGCSEs! I really can't update like this anymore, apologies but this was just to complete this post. Hope it helps anyway. :) </div>
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<span style="color: purple; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 11pt;">Thank you to the anonymous person who spotted a mistake in one of my answers, please let me know when you do find some so I can change it! I won't do new posts but I can still change the existing ones if there's an error. :) </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 34.54545211791992px;"><span style="color: purple; font-family: inherit;">¡gracias</span></span></div>
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<sub><o:p></o:p></sub></div>
Michelle Limhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09339242235492066750noreply@blogger.com55tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4724990750193504065.post-49583253720354515802012-03-26T21:41:00.002+07:002012-03-26T21:41:36.127+07:00How to balance chemistry equations<a href="http://video.about.com/chemistry/How-to-Balance-Chemistry-Equations.htm">http://video.about.com/chemistry/How-to-Balance-Chemistry-Equations.htm</a>Michelle Limhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09339242235492066750noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4724990750193504065.post-23613066116863715522012-03-26T21:11:00.001+07:002012-06-06T19:47:41.989+07:00The Periodic Table<span xmlns=""></span><br />
<span xmlns=""><span style="color: navy; font-family: inherit;"><strong>Specification:</strong></span></span><br />
<ul style="margin-left: 57pt;">
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;" xmlns="">Understand the terms group and period</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;" xmlns="">Recall the positions of metals and non-metals in the Periodic Table</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;" xmlns="">Explain the classification of elements as metals or non-metals on the basis of their electrical conductivity and the acid-base character of their oxides </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;" xmlns="">Understand why elements in the same group of the Periodic Table have similar chemical properties</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;" xmlns="">Recall the noble gases (group 0) as a family of inert gases and explain the lack of reactivity in terms of their electronic configuration</span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<div style="margin-left: 19pt;">
<span xmlns=""><span style="color: navy; font-family: inherit;"><strong>Notes:</strong></span></span></div>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;" xmlns="">The periodic table is a list of elements arranged in order of their increasing atomic (proton) number. </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;" xmlns="">A <strong>period </strong>is a horizontal row of elements--the number of electron shells is the same as the period number of the element.</span></li>
<li><div>
<span style="font-family: inherit;" xmlns="">A <strong>group</strong> is a vertical column of elements--the number of valence electrons (outer shell electrons) is the same as the group number of the element.</span></div>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;" xmlns="">Since elements with similar electronic configurations have similar chemical properties, we can deduce that elements in the same group have similar chemical properties. </span></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><div>
<span style="font-family: inherit;" xmlns="">The block of metals between Groups 2 and 3 are known as the transition elements/metals, these form coloured compounds. </span></div>
<span style="font-family: inherit;" xmlns=""><br /> </span></li>
</ul>
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Chemical Properties<o:p></o:p></div>
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Metals<o:p></o:p></div>
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Non-metals<o:p></o:p></div>
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<ul>
<li>Usually have 1-3 electrons in
their outer shell</li>
<li>Lose their valence electrons
easily</li>
<li>Form oxides that are basic</li>
<li>Are good reducing agents</li>
</ul>
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<ul>
<li>Usually have 4-8 electrons in
their outer shell</li>
<li>Gain or share valence electrons</li>
<li>Form oxides that are acidic</li>
<li>Are good oxidizing agents</li>
</ul>
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Physical Properties<o:p></o:p></div>
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Metals<o:p></o:p></div>
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Non-metals<o:p></o:p></div>
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<ul>
<li>Good electrical and heat
conductors</li>
<li>Malleable—can be hit and shaped</li>
<li>Ductile—can be stretched into
wire</li>
<li>Possess metallic luster (shiny)</li>
<li>Opaque as thin sheet</li>
<li>Solid at room temperature
(except Mercury [Hg]- liquid)</li>
</ul>
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<ul>
<li>Poor conductors of heat and
electricity</li>
<li>Brittle- if a solid</li>
<li>Non-ductile</li>
<li>Do not possess metallic luster</li>
<li>Transparent as a thin sheet</li>
<li>Solids, liquids or gases at
room temperature</li>
</ul>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;" xmlns=""><br /> </span><br />
<div style="margin-left: 19pt;">
<span xmlns=""><span style="color: navy; font-family: inherit;"><strong>Noble Gases (Group 0): </strong></span></span></div>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;" xmlns="">Least reactive elements in the periodic table.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;" xmlns="">Apart from helium (which has 2), the rest have 8 valence electrons--all have full outer shells.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;" xmlns="">Their full electronic structures make them unreactive. </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;" xmlns="">Group 0 elements also referred to as <strong>inert gases</strong> (because they are unreactive) or <strong>rare gases</strong> (because less than 1% of the air is made up of these gases). </span></li>
<li><div>
<span style="font-family: inherit;" xmlns="">Noble gases do not react to form compounds because their atoms have full outer shells of electrons, it is energetically easier to stay as they are. </span></div>
<span style="font-family: inherit;" xmlns=""> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;" xmlns="">The noble gases are:</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;" xmlns="">Monatomic elements</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;" xmlns="">All colorless gases at room temperature</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;" xmlns="">Have low melting and boiling points that increase going down the group (As atoms get bigger, there is greater intermolecular attraction that require more energy to break.)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;" xmlns="">Insoluble in water</span></li>
<li><span xmlns=""><span style="font-family: inherit;">Unreactive </span></span></li>
</ul>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img height="516" src="http://fc03.deviantart.net/fs71/i/2010/221/9/f/Periodic_Table_of_Pokemon_by_Kuinala.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="640" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">just thought this was cool :P </td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div>
</div>Michelle Limhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09339242235492066750noreply@blogger.com17tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4724990750193504065.post-34792755672163893072012-03-13T23:07:00.002+07:002012-06-06T19:56:29.941+07:00Rates of Reaction<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><u>Different Speeds of Reaction</u></b></div>
<br />
Different chemical reactions take place at different speeds.<br />
<br />
Very fast:<br />
<ul>
<li>explosion of a petrol-air mixture</li>
<li>precipitation reactions</li>
<li>fireworks going off</li>
<li>coal burning</li>
</ul>
<div>
Moderately fast:</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>reaction of metals or carbonates with dilute acids</li>
</ul>
<div>
Slow: </div>
</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>rusting of iron in air</li>
<li>reaction of magnesium with cold water</li>
<li>oil forming</li>
<li>silver tarnishing</li>
</ul>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: inherit;">How do we calculate the speed of reaction? </span></u></b></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">During a chemical reaction, the reactants get used up as products are formed. We can measure the <b>speed of reaction</b> by measuring the <i>amount of a reactant used up per unit time, </i>i.e.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Speed of reaction= amount of reactant used up/time taken</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The speed of a reaction can also be measured in terms of the <i>amount of a product formed/obtained per unit time, </i>i.e. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Speed of reaction= amount of product formed/time taken</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
For a chemical reaction that produces a gas, the speed of reaction can be found by measuring the <i>volume of gas produced per unit time, </i>i.e.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Speed of reaction= volume of gas produced/time taken</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><u><br /></u></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><u>Measuring Speed of Reaction from Changes in Volume</u></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The speed of a reaction can be found by measuring the following quantities at <i>regular time intervals:</i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<ul>
<li>volume of gas produced by the reaction</li>
<li>the mass of the reactant that remains</li>
</ul>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><u><br /></u></b><br />
<b><u>Measuring Speed of Reaction from Changes in Mass</u></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The speed of a reaction can also be found by measuring the changes in mass of a reaction mixture. This method works best for reactions which produce gases such as carbon dioxide. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><u><br /></u></b><br />
<b><u>Factors Affecting Speed of Reaction</u></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Many factors affect the speed of a chemical reaction. These include:</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<ul>
<li>the concentration of the reactants</li>
<li>the pressure of the reactants (if the reactants are gaseous)</li>
<li>the particle size or surface area of the reactants</li>
<li>the temperature at which the reaction is occurring</li>
</ul>
<div>
<i>Concentration:</i><br />
Increasing the concentration means there's more of the reactants in the same volume. Thus with more particles there will be more collisions, and there will be higher chance of <i>effective collisions</i>, thus increasing the rate of reaction.<br />
<br />
<i>Pressure:</i><br />
This is just like concentration, but it's more to do with gaseous reactants. With higher pressure--more particles--more collisions--higher chance of effective collisions--increase rate of reaction.<br />
<br />
<i>Surface area:</i><br />
The bigger the surface area, the more chance of collisions, ditto above. Same thing. It's all about having more collisions, thus more effective collisions which increase rate of reaction. E.g. if you had a piece of metal, and you cut it into many smaller pieces, it would react faster with acid because the acid will have more area of the metal to collide with.<br />
<br />
<i>Temperature:</i><br />
The higher the temperature, the more thermal energy is transferred to kinetic energy for the particles, thus they move faster and collide more often. If they have more energy, it is likelier that they will have minimum activation energy therefore there will be more effective collisions. And for a change, the rate of reaction increases... :P<br />
<br />
<br />
For a reaction to occur between 2 particles: </div>
<div>
<ol>
<li>the reacting particles must collide with each other</li>
<li>they must collide with a certain <i>minimum amount of energy </i>known as the <b>activation energy</b></li>
</ol>
<div>
In this way, collisions between reacting particles result in the formation of product particles. These collisions are known as <b>effective collisions. </b></div>
</div>
<div>
Thus in a reaction between hydrogen and chlorine, only fast-moving molecules with energies equal to or greater than the activation energy will react on collision to form hydrogen chloride. </div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>In general, when <i>any factor increases the rate of effective collisions between reacting particles, it will also increase the speed of reaction. </i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>Michelle Limhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09339242235492066750noreply@blogger.com9tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4724990750193504065.post-81989917085483252592012-03-13T00:33:00.001+07:002012-06-06T19:57:14.785+07:00Energetics<div style="text-align: -webkit-center;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>4.13 understand the use of ΔH to represent molar enthalpy change for exothermic and</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>endothermic reactions</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="font-weight: bold;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
4.14 represent exothermic and endothermic reactions on a simple energy level diagram</div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div style="font-weight: bold;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
4.15 recall that the breaking of bonds is endothermic and that the making of bonds is</div>
</div>
<div style="font-weight: bold;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
exothermic</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Just remember this! To break smth, obviously you need energy, so you need to take it in, hence breaking of bonds is endothermic. When substances form bonds, it's usually to become more stable, and thus they release energy. E.g. reactive elements like sodium react with chlorine to form sodium chloride, your common table salt, and this is a very stable ionic compound, and the reaction is exothermic. (less energy, less violently reactive...makes sense right?)</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://chemistry.about.com/cs/generalchemistry/a/aa051903a.htm"><span style="color: blue;">http://chemistry.about.com/cs/generalchemistry/a/aa051903a.htm</span></a>
</div>
<br />
<u><b><br /></b></u><br />
<u><b>Heat Changes in a Reaction</b></u></div>
<div style="text-align: -webkit-center;">
<u><br /></u></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>heat change/enthalpy change: </b>the amount of energy involved in a reaction, measured in kilojoules (kJ) which is 1000 joules, and is represented by the symbol <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Symbol; text-align: -webkit-center;"><span style="color: red;">D</span><i><span style="color: red;">H.</span> (</i></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Symbol; text-align: -webkit-center;">D </span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: -webkit-center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">is the Greek letter for 'delta', which means change. <i>H </i>means energy content. </span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; text-align: -webkit-center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; text-align: -webkit-center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">For an <i>exothermic reaction </i></span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Symbol; text-align: -webkit-center;">D</span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: -webkit-center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i>H </i>is <i>negative. </i>This is because the chemicals have lost energy to the surroundings. </span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; text-align: -webkit-center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">For an <i>endothermic reaction, </i></span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Symbol; text-align: -webkit-center;">D</span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: -webkit-center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i>H </i>is <i>positive. </i>This is because the chemicals have gained energy from the surroundings. </span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; text-align: -webkit-center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Examples:</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
1. When one mole of carbon is burnt in excess oxygen, 349 kJ of heat is produced. This is an exothermic reaction. So <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Symbol; text-align: -webkit-center;">D</span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: -webkit-center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i>H=</i>-349kJ. </span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
carbon + oxygen <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> carbon
dioxide</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">C(s) + O<sub>2 </sub></span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; line-height: 115%;">à</span><sub><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;"> </span></sub><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;">CO<sub>2
</sub>(g) </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Symbol;">D</span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i>H=</i>-349kJ</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i><br /></i></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
2. When one mole of hydrogen reacts with one mole of iodine, 52 kJ of heat is absorbed from the surroundings. This is an example of an endothermic reaction. <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Symbol; text-align: -webkit-center;">D</span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: -webkit-center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i>H=</i>+52 kJ</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; text-align: -webkit-center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
hydrogen + iodine <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> hydrogen iodide
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
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H<sub>2 </sub>(g) + I<sub>2 </sub>(g) <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> 2HI (g) </div>
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<b><u>Energy Level Diagrams for Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions</u></b></div>
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Energy level diagrams--convenient ways to express energy changes in a reaction</div>
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<b><i>Exothermic Reaction </i></b></div>
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Consider an exothermic reaction, heat energy is lost to surroundings. This means that total energy of the products is less than that of the reactants. </div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The energy level diagram of an exothermic reaction</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">The <i>difference </i>between the energy levels of the products and the reactants is equal to the <i>amount of energy given out </i>by the reaction. </span><br />
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<b>i.e. <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Symbol; line-height: 115%;">D</span><i><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 115%;">H=H</span></i><sub><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 115%;">products </span></sub></b><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 115%;"><b>– <i>H</i></b><sub><b>reactants</b> </sub></span> (as the energy of the reactants is larger, <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Symbol; line-height: 18px;">D</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 18px;"><i>H </i>becomes negative. --> taking away a larger value from a smaller one gives a negative result. e.g. 2-4=-2)</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 115%;"> </span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; line-height: 115%;">NOTE: USE THE SAME EQUATION FOR ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS. It is always: </span></div>
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<span style="color: red;"><b> <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Symbol; line-height: 18px;">D</span><i><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 18px;">H= H</span></i><sub><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 18px;">products </span></sub></b><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 18px;"><b>– <i>H</i></b><sub><b>reactants</b></sub></span></span>
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<span style="line-height: 18px;"><b><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">Endothermic Reaction</span></i></b></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 18px;">Since an endothermic reaction absorbs heat from the surroundings, the products will have more energy than the reactants. The <i>difference </i>between the energy levels of the products and reactants is the <i>energy absorbed </i>during the reaction.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The energy level diagram of an endothermic reaction<br />
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<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b>Activation Energy "E<sub>a</sub>" </b></span><span style="background-color: white;"><b>- </b>The minimum energy required to initiate (start) a chemical reaction. Both endothermic and exothermic reactions require activation energy.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: white;">So when particles collide and react, this is called an <i>effective collision</i>. This only happens when the particles have the minimum activation energy, if not, they may collide but it wouldn't result in a reaction.</span></span><br />
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<b>Exothermic Reaction<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b>Endothermic Reaction<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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Gives out heat to the surroundings<o:p></o:p></div>
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Takes in heat from the surroundings<o:p></o:p></div>
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Causes an increase in temperature<o:p></o:p></div>
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Causes a decrease in temperature<o:p></o:p></div>
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Has a negative <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Symbol;">D</span><i><span style="background-color: white;">H</span></i><o:p></o:p></div>
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Has a positive <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Symbol;">D</span><i><span style="background-color: white;">H</span></i><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><o:p></o:p></div>
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Has products lower in energy than the
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Has products that have higher energy than
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<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-align: -webkit-center;">This is a great, concise video to summarise everything, watch! </span></span></span></div>
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/VbIaK6PLrRM?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
</div>Michelle Limhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09339242235492066750noreply@blogger.com18tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4724990750193504065.post-16872110502628887102012-03-08T23:17:00.001+07:002012-06-06T19:53:45.512+07:00Ionic Bonding<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Spec 1.27 describe the formation of ions by the gain or loss of electrons</b></div>
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We think of atoms 'losing' an electron to another, what is really happening is that one of the atoms is attracted to the electron pair much more strongly than the other one. The electron pair is then pulled very close to that atom and away from the other one. Hence this atom gains an electron, whilst the other loses one.</div>
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[Note in a covalent bond, the electrons are shared between two atoms. Both nuclei are attracted to the same electron pair.]</div>
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The electrically charged particles are called <b>ions. </b>An ion is an atom which carries an electrical charge, either positive or negative.</div>
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<li style="text-align: justify;">a positive ion is called a <b>cation</b></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">a negative ion is called an <b>anion </b>[tip: anion= <b>A</b>-<b>N</b>egative-<b>ION</b>]</li>
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Ionic bonding is bonding in which there has been a transfer of electrons from one atom to another to produce ions. The substance is held together by strong electrostatic attraction between the positive and negative ions. </div>
</div>Michelle Limhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09339242235492066750noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4724990750193504065.post-61254282785613723682012-03-08T23:09:00.002+07:002012-06-06T19:53:57.333+07:00Covalent Bonding<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><u>What is a covalent bond?</u></b></div>
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This is a shared pair of electrons between two non-metal atoms. If each atom shares 2 electrons, it is called a double covalent bond. E.g. in oxygen, as each oxygen atom has 6 outer shell electrons it shares 2 electrons to have 8 as a full outer shell, hence oxygen is diatomic. O<sub>2</sub></div>
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Each of the positively charged nuclei is attracted to the same negatively charged pair of electrons, which is why covalent bonds are so strong.</div>
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<b><u>Why does hydrogen form molecules? </u></b></div>
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Whenever a bond is formed (of whatever kind), energy is released, and that makes the things involved more stable than they were before. The more bonds an atom can form, the more energy is released and the more stable the system becomes.</div>
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In the case of hydrogen, each hydrogen atom has only one electron to share, so it can only form one covalent bond. The H<sub>2 </sub>molecule is still much more stable than two separate hydrogen atoms.</div>
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<b><u>The significance of noble gas structures in covalent bonding</u></b></div>
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The formation of covalent bonds producing noble gas structures is quite common. When atoms bond covalently, they often produce outer electronic structures the same as noble gases-full outer shell. This is so they become stable and unreactive. The more electrons shared, the more covalent bonds there are, the more stable the molecule is.</div>
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<sub><o:p></o:p></sub></div>Michelle Limhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09339242235492066750noreply@blogger.com8